Jeihan Reka Grafis

Awas Virus Singapura Menyerang Anak-anak

2010-05-07T08:47:00.001+07:00

Penyakit mulut, kaki, dan tangan atau Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease (HMFD), atau masyarakat menyebutnya dengan virus Singapura sering ditemui pada anak dan bayi. Sesungguhnya virus Singapura bukan berasal dari Negara Singapura seperti yang banyak diduga orang. Melainkan penyakit ini sebenarnya sudah lama ada, namun kembali berjangkit dan menjadi pandemik di Singapura. Oleh karena itulah penyakit ini dijuluki dengan nama virus Singapura.
Gejala awal anak yang terjangkit virus Singapura adalah demam, kemudian diikuti dengan gejala lain seperti sariawan di rongga mulut, gusi, dan pipi bagian dalam dengan jumlah yang cukup banyak. Selain itu, muncul bintil-bintil kecil mirip dengan cacar yang muncul di telapak tangan dan telapak kaki. Bintil ini terkadang juga muncul di bokong, dan mudah pecah. Anak yang terserang juga akan merasakan ngilu dan nyeri pada tangan, kaki dan mulut sehingga terlihat lemas.
Menurut dr Tanti Yohana dari Rumah Sakit Dr Oen Surakarta, anak-anak yang terkena virus Singapura biasanya malas makan dan minum karena rasa nyeri dalam mulut akibat sariawan. Suhu badan juga naik tinggi hingga 39 derajat Celcius. Sehingga perlu diwaspadai jika anak mengalami kekurangan cairan (dehidrasi) akibat demam.
“Virus coxsackie, picornaviriday dan enterovirus 71 adalah beberapa jenis virus penebar benih penyakit ini. Virus ini mudah sekali bermutasi dan menular saat musim peralihan atau pancaroba, selain juga faktor kepadatan penduduk dan mobilitas, seperti saat ini,” papar Tanti, sapaannya.
Penyakit virus Singapura memang bukan termasuk kategori penyakit berbahaya. Dari sejumlah kasus yang ada, penderita akan dapat kembali sehat seperti semula setelah menjalani perawatan. Tapi karena virus ini begitu mudah menular di kalangan anak-anak, tentu saja hal tersebut mudah memancing kepanikan orangtua.
Tanti mengungkapkan, beberapa minggu ini angka anak yang menderita virus Singapura terutama yang ditangani di rumah sakitnya cenderung mengalami peningkatan. Dia menduga, musim pancaroba menjadi faktor penyebab, selain juga karena daya tahan tubuh si anak yang kurang baik. “Tak hanya itu, gejala bintil-bintil yang muncul di tangan dan kaki juga menjadi lebih parah dari biasanya. Karena beberapa pasien yang saya tangani, bintil yang terjadi menyebar hingga tungkai dan lengan,” ujar dokter alumnus Fakultas Kedokteran Universitas Atmajaya Jakarta ini.
Virus penyebab penyakit sangat mudah menular pada orang lain di sekitar penderita. Penularan biasanya melalui kontak langsung yakni lewat bersin, pilek, air liur, cairan yang keluar dari bintil, atau melalui perkakas yang digunakan penderita seperti handuk, baju, ataupun celana. Sehingga sangat disarankan untuk anak yang menderita penyakit ini terutama yang sudah duduk di bangku sekolah untuk sementara waktu menghindari kontak dengan teman-temannya agar virus tak menyebar.
“Masyarakat tidak perlu panik dan jika memang diketahui anaknya mengidap gejala penyakit ini sebaiknya segera menjalani perawatan dan tidak bersekolah untuk mencegah penularan ke anak lain,” imbaunya.
Masa inkubasi penyakit berkisar antara tiga hingga empat hari. Dari kasus yang sudah ditemui biasanya penderita akan sembuh dalam waktu tujuh sampai 10 hari, itu pun jika si anak dalam kondisi tubuh yang baik.
Belum Ada Obatnya
Sampai saat ini belum ada pengobatan spesifik untuk menangani virus penyebab penyakit tangan, kaki dan mulut. Sehingga, pengobatan yang dilakukan hanya berupa pengobatan simptomatis, yaitu mengobati gejala yang timbul. Misalnya, pada demam dan sakit kepala diberi obat pereda demam (paracetamol) dan pereda nyeri. Jika terjadi infeksi sekunder oleh bakteri, dokter mungkin akan memberikan antibiotik.
“Penyakit ini bertipe self limiting diseases, yaitu dapat sembuh dengan sendirinya. Pasien hanya perlu istirahat karena daya tahan tubuh menurun. Pasien yang memerlukan rawat inap di rumah sakit hanya dengan gejala berat dan komplikasi,” kata wanita asli Jakarta ini.
Meski belum ada obatnya, keadaan umum anak yang menderita harus tetap dijaga. Diusahakan tetap makan dan minum karena dapat berperan dalam proses penyembuhan. Penyakit ini sering terjadi pada masyarakat dengan sanitasi yang kurang baik.
Pencegahan penyakit ini adalah dengan mengilangkan kekumuhan dan kepadatan lingkungan, serta memperhatikan kebersihan (hygiene dan sanitasi) lingkungan maupun perorangan.
Cara yang paling gampang dilakukan, menurut Tanti, adalah membiasakan selalu cuci tangan, khususnya sehabis berdekatan dengan penderita, atau membersihkan peralatan makanan, mainan, handuk yang memungkinkan terkontaminasi dengan disinfektan (bahan kimia pencegah infeksi). (Ikrob Didik Irawan)

sumber : harianjoglosemar

Daging Buatan Bisa Kurangi Efek Rumah Kaca

2009-12-01T13:21:00.001+07:00

London, Untuk mencegah pemanasan global, mengurangi penderitaan hewan dan membantu para vegetarian, peneliti mengembangkan daging buatan hasil percobaan laboratorium. Produksi daging selama ini dianggap menyumbang 18 persen gas penyebab efek pemanasan global. Daging buatan adalah solusi untuk mencegah efek rumah kaca.

Peneliti dari Belanda mengembangkan ide tersebut setelah Sekretaris Kesehatan di Inggris, Andy Burnham melaporkan bahwa emisi karbon yang dilepas ke atmosfer hasil produksi daging cukup tinggi sehingga bisa menyebabkan pemanasan global. Menurutnya, produksi daging perlu dikurangi hingga sepertiganya.

Untuk mengatasi masalah tersebut, peneliti membuat solusi yaitu menciptakan daging tanpa harus menyembelih atau membunuh seluruh binatang yang ingin diproduksi menjadi daging atau olahannya, sehingga emisi karbon bisa dikurangi. Selain itu, penyakit akibat konsumsi daging berlebih seperti jantung dan kanker pun diharapkan bisa berkurang.

"Kami mengembangkan daging buatan ini dari ekstrak sel otot babi, lalu mengembangkannya di cairan kultur daging lainnya. Sel-sel tersebut kemudian akan berkembang dan menciptakan jaringan otot yang membangun struktur dan tekstur sebuah daging," jelas seorang peneliti seperti dikutip dari Telegraph, Selasa (1/12/2009).

"Produk ini akan berefek baik bagi lingkungan dan bisa mengurangi penderitaan hewan karena hanya diperlukan satu binatang untuk menciptakan banyak daging yang seharusnya berasal dari jutaan binatang. Jika rasanya seperti daging sungguhan, orang-orang pasti akan membelinya," tambahnya.

Daging buatan ini rencananya akan dijual di pasaran sekitar 5 tahun lagi karena peneliti masih mencari cara untuk mempercepat pertumbuhan sel-sel otot pembentuk daging tersebut agar dalam proses pembuatannya nanti bisa lebih cepat dan efektif.

Proyek ini didukung oleh pemerintah Belanda dan perusahaan pembuat sosis yang peduli akan lingkungan. Gas metana yang dihasilkan dari produksi daging dan olahannya diduga sebagai penyumbang efek rumah kaca terbesar bagi bumi.

Namun isu produk Genetically Modified (GM) pun muncul ketika ide daging buatan ini mulai dicobakan di laboratorium. Produk-produk GM saat ini memang sedang marak, namun banyak yang mencurigai efeknya yang buruk bagi kesehatan.

Inggris adalah salah satu negera yang kurang mendukung produksi produk-produk berbau rekayasa genetik. Minggu lalu, Pangeran Charles mengumumkan hasil survei Food Standards Agency tentang dampak yang dihasilkan dari produk GM.

Charles mengingatkan kepada masyarakatnya untuk tidak mengonsumsi produk GM jika tidak ingin memiliki masalah kesehatan. Menurutnya, komoditas pangan adalah hadiah dari alam dan sebaiknya tidak dimodifikasi. (detik.health)

Rendra Dalam Puisi

2009-08-07T08:42:00.000+07:00

Untuk mengenang WS Rendra
Selamat jalan mas willy, semoga perjuanganmu akan diingat oleh semua orang......
berikut karya karya besar WS Rendra

Makna Sebuah Titipan
WS Rendra

Sering kali aku berkata, ketika orang memuji milikku,
bahwa :

sesungguhnya ini hanya titipan,
bahwa mobilku hanya titipan Allah
bahwa rumahku hanya titipan Nya,
bahwa hartaku hanya titipan Nya,
bahwa putraku hanya titipan Nya,

tetapi, mengapa aku tak pernah bertanya,
mengapa Dia menitipkan padaku?
Untuk apa Dia menitipkan ini pada ku?
Dan kalau bukan milikku,
apa yang harus kulakukan untuk milik Nya ini?

Adakah aku memiliki hak atas sesuatu yang bukan milikku?
Mengapa hatiku justru terasa berat, ketika titipan itu
diminta kembali oleh-Nya?

Ketika diminta kembali,
kusebut itu sebagai musibah
kusebut itu sebagai ujian,
kusebut itu sebagai petaka,
kusebut dengan panggilan apa saja untuk melukiskan
bahwa itu adalah derita.

Ketika aku berdoa,
kuminta titipan yang cocok dengan hawa nafsuku,
aku ingin lebih banyak harta,
ingin lebih banyak mobil,
lebih banyak popularitas,
dan kutolak sakit,
kutolak kemiskinan,
seolah semua “derita” adalah hukuman bagiku.

Seolah keadilan dan kasih Nya harus berjalan seperti
matematika:
aku rajin beribadah,
maka selayaknyalah derita menjauh dariku,
dan nikmat dunia kerap menghampiriku.
Kuperlakukan Dia seolah mitra dagang,
dan bukan kekasih.
Kuminta Dia membalas “perlakuan baikku”,
dan menolak keputusanNya yang tak sesuai keinginanku,

Gusti, padahal tiap hari kuucapkan,
hidup dan matiku hanyalah untuk beribadah…

“ketika langit dan bumi bersatu, bencana dan keberuntungan sama saja”

Sajak Sebatang Lisong
WS Rendra

Menghisap sebatang lisong
melihat Indonesia Raya
mendengar 130 juta rakyat
dan di langit
dua tiga cukung mengangkang
berak di atas kepala mereka

matahari terbit
fajar tiba
dan aku melihat delapan juta kanak – kanak
tanpa pendidikan

aku bertanya
tetapi pertanyaan – pertanyaanku
membentur meja kekuasaan yang macet
dan papantulis – papantulis para pendidik
yang terlepas dari persoalan kehidupan

delapan juta kanak – kanak
menghadapi satu jalan panjang
tanpa pilihan
tanpa pepohonan
tanpa dangau persinggahan
tanpa ada bayangan ujungnya
……………………..
menghisap udara
yang disemprot deodorant
aku melihat sarjana – sarjana menganggur
berpeluh di jalan raya
aku melihat wanita bunting
antri uang pensiunan

dan di langit
para teknokrat berkata :

bahwa bangsa kita adalah malas
bahwa bangsa mesti dibangun
mesti di up-grade
disesuaikan dengan teknologi yang diimpor

gunung – gunung menjulang
langit pesta warna di dalam senjakala
dan aku melihat
protes – protes yang terpendam
terhimpit di bawah tilam

aku bertanya
tetapi pertanyaanku
membentur jidat penyair – penyair salon
yang bersajak tentang anggur dan rembulan
sementara ketidak adilan terjadi disampingnya
dan delapan juta kanak – kanak tanpa pendidikan
termangu – mangu di kaki dewi kesenian

bunga – bunga bangsa tahun depan
berkunang – kunang pandang matanya
di bawah iklan berlampu neon
berjuta – juta harapan ibu dan bapak
menjadi gemalau suara yang kacau
menjadi karang di bawah muka samodra
……………………………

kita mesti berhenti membeli rumus – rumus asing
diktat – diktat hanya boleh memberi metode
tetapi kita sendiri mesti merumuskan keadaan
kita mesti keluar ke jalan raya
keluar ke desa – desa
mencatat sendiri semua gejala
dan menghayati persoalan yang nyata

inilah sajakku
pamplet masa darurat
apakah artinya kesenian
bila terpisah dari derita lingkungan
apakah artinya berpikir
bila terpisah dari masalah kehidupan

(RENDRA - itb bandung – 19 Agustus 1978 )

Laporan FAO: Industri Penternakan Adalah Penyebab Utama Pemanasan Global

2009-03-31T08:40:00.000+07:00

Pernahkah Anda membuka lemari es Anda, menarik keluar dua puluh piring pasta dan membuangnya ke tempat sampah, dan kemudian, hanya makan satu piring makanan? Hal ini sama dengan menebang 55 kaki persegi hutan untuk satu kali makan siang Anda atau membuang 2500 gallon air ke saluran pembuangan. Apakah Anda akan melakukannya? Bagaimanapun juga, hanya makan setengah kilo daging akan mengakibatkan hal-hal tersebut di atas. Makan daging akan menyebabkan pengrusakan terhadap sumber alam dan lingkungan kita, menyebabkan penderitaan hewan yang besar, serta memberikan efek-efek merusak bagi kesehatan kita. Jadi, dengan memanggang seekor anjing untuk disajikan bersama kentang dapat membuat Anda muak, tetapi mengapa kita malah memanggang hewan yang jinak lainnya?

Sebuah laporan dari PBB telah membuktikan bahwa “sapi bukan mobil, tetapi menjadi ancaman teratas bagi lingkungan kita.” Laporan tersebut memberikan bukti bahwa pertumbuhan yang cepat dari hewan-hewan ternak di dunia telah menjadi ancaman terbesar terhadap iklim, hutan, dan kehidupan liar. Hewan-hewan peternakan menghasilkan kotoran 130 kali lebih banyak daripada keseluruhan populasi manusia di Amerika Serikat dan air kotor yang terkonsentrasi kotoran hewan pada akhirnya mengakibatkan pencemaran air, merusak lapisan tanah teratas, dan mencemari udara kita. Lebih jauh lagi, gas buangan dan pupuk rabuk kotoran ternak menghasilkan lebih dari sepertiga gas metana yang memberi kontribusi terhadap pemanasan global 20 kali lebih cepat daripada kardondioksida. Pemakan daging bertanggung jawab atas seratus presen produksi dari hasil buangan-buangan ini yang kira-kita menghasilkan 86 ribu pon setiap detik. Tetapi, dengan menolak produk-produk hewan, Anda telah mengurangi hal-hal merusak di atas.

Lebih jauh lagi, cita rasa kita terhadap daging telah mengorbankan persediaan sumber daya alam yang tidak dapat diperbaharui kembali. Sejumlah 2500 gallon air dibutuhkan untuk memproduksi 1 pon daging sapi, tetapi, kita hanya membutuhkan 29 gallon air untuk menghasilkan 1 pon tomat, dan 39 gallon air untuk 1 pon roti tawar. Dengan setengah jumlah air, delapan puluh persen tanah pertanian di Amerika Serikat, hampir semua panenan kacang kedelai dan separuh lebih hasil biji-bijian dunia digunakan untuk memeliharan ternak untuk dimakan. Sementara itu, ada 1 milyar penduduk yang menderita kelaparan dan kekurangan gizi, serta 24 ribu anak-anak yang meninggal setiap hari karena hal ini. Hal ini ironis dengan ladang gandum dan padi yang ditakdirkan untuk hewan-hewan ternak di negara Barat. Bagaimanapun, kelaparan dunia akan hilang jika sumber-sumber alam kita dipergunakan secara efisien dengan mengubah pertanian untuk meningkatkan hasil panen yang dapat memberi makan seluruh penduduk dunia.

Apakah Anda sadar bahwa 130 juta hewan dibunuh setiap tahun di Selandia Baru? Sebagian besar hewan dipelihara di pabrik peternakan, dengan sistem yang memaksimalkan produksi dengan biaya yang minimal. Sebagai gantinya, hewan-hewan peternakan sangat menderita secara mental dan fisik; setiap detik dalam hidup mereka. Hewan-hewan tersebut berjejalan ke dalam sistem kurungan dengan sedikit jendela, kotor, serta tidak pernah melihat keluarga mereka, mengkais-kais tanah atau melakukan apapun yang alami bagi mereka. Mereka bahkan tidak merasakan matahari di punggung mereka atau menghirup udara segar sampai pada hari dimana mereka dimuat ke dalam truk, dan ditakdirkan untuk dibunuh. Lebih dari 90 juta hewan di Selandia Baru menderita dengan kondisi-kondisi seperti ini dan banyak yang tetap sadar ketika leher mereka disembelih, kemudian, dibiarkan kehabisan darah sampai mati.

Praktik peternakan yang kejam lainnya yang sering dilakukan oleh peternakan unggas adalah dengan tidak memberi mereka makan selama 14 hari untuk mengejutkan tubuh unggas tersebut agar bertelur lebih banyak untuk konsumsi manusia. Dan, karena anak-anak ayam yang jantan tidak berguna di industri daging, setiap tahunnya ada 100 juta anak ayam jantan lebih yang digiling hidup-hidup atau dimasukkan ke dalam kantong sampai mati kehabisan nafas. Lebih jauh lagi, di tempat penjagalan, leher-leher ayam disembelih, dan mereka dicelupkan dalam air panas untuk menghilangkan bulu-bulu mereka, sementara banyak dari mereka yang masih hidup.

Bahkan sekarang ini, untuk menandai sapi dengan tujuan identifikasi, para peternak menekan besi panas yang membara ke daging sapi sementara mereka melenguh kesakitan. Akibatnya, timbul luka bakar tingkat tiga dan kelamin anak sapi jantan dipotong dari kantung kemaluannya, dan semua itu dilakukan tanpa diberikan penghilang rasa sakit. Untuk menambah penderitaan mereka, tanah yang digunakan ternak untuk merumput memiliki udara yang penuh dengan gas-gas kimia. Hal ini menyebabkan masalah pernapasan yang kronis.

Sapi-sapi yang dipelihara untuk diambil susunya, secara berulang-ulang dibuat hamil kembali dan bayi-bayi mereka diambil sehingga manusia dapat minum hasil susunya yang sebenarnya dimaksudkan untuk bayi-bayi sapi. Sapi-sapi tersebut dihubungkan dengan mesin-mesin beberapa kali sehari dan menggunakan manipulasi genetik, hormon-hormon yang kuat, dan penyedotan susu yang intensif. Mereka dipaksa untuk menghasilkan susu sepuluh kali lebih banyak dari yang biasanya. Perlakuan-perlakuan ini ikut menambah peradangan yang sangat menyakitkan bagi 50 persen dari sapi-sapi perah yang ada.

Hewan-hewan di peternakan saat ini tidak memiliki perlindungan undang-undang dari kekejaman. Hal ini seharusnya menjadi illegal jika diterapkan pada hewan peliharaan di rumah-rumah tangga: pengabaian, mutilasi, manipulasi genetik, dan program obat-obatan yang menyebabkan kesakitan kronis, kelumpuhan, dan penyembelihan yang kasar. Robert Louis Stevenson, seorang penulis novel dan puisi berkata, “Kita mengkonsumsi bangkai makhluk lain untuk memuaskan cita rasa dan nafsu diri kita.” Namun, hewan-hewan di peternakan pada dasarnya sangat pandai dan dapat merasakan sakit. Mereka mungkin sama pandainya dengan anjing atau kucing yang kita anggap sebagai teman.

Hal ini ditunjukkan oleh laporan-laporan yang sering terjadi tentang sapi-sapi yang melompati pagar setinggi enam kaki untuk melarikan diri dari rumah jagal, serta berjalan tujuh mil untuk bersatu kembali dengan anaknya dan berenang menyeberangi sungai menuju kebebasan. Babi-babi juga merupakan hewan yang penuh pengertian seperti yang ditemukan oleh Dr. Donald Broom, penasehat ilmiah pemerintahan Inggris – "Babi memiliki kemampuan kesadaran, mereka cukup pandai dan cerdik. Bahkan lebih dari anjing yang berumur tiga tahun.”

Langkah yang paling penting yang dapat Anda ambil untuk menyelamatkan planet kita dan mengurangi penderitaan manusia serta hewan adalah dengan menjadi vegetarian. Sebuah pola makan yang kaya dengan karbohidrat komplek, protein, serat, omega 3, vitamin, dan mineral dapat memberikan nutrisi yang optimal. Memupuk kebiasaan makan ini dapat menjaga kesehatan seumur hidup. Bukti yang mengejutkan dapat ditemukan di buku “The China Study” oleh Profesor T.Colin Campbell yang berkata, “dalam sepuluh tahun ke depan, salah satu hal yang paling mengejutkan yang akan Anda dengar adalah protein hewani merupakan salah satu dari nutrisi beracun yang paling tinggi dari semuanya... ancaman penyakit akan naik secara dramatis ketika sedikit protein hewani saja yang ditambahkan ke pola makan Anda.” Penelitian telah menunjukkan bahwa anak-anak vegetarian memiliki IQ yang lebih tinggi daripada teman-teman sekelasnya, dan para vegetarian rata-rata dapat hidup 6 sampai 10 tahun lebih lama daripada pemakan daging. Sebagai tambahan, mereka 50 persen lebih rendah terserang penyakit jantung dan kanker. Sedangkan pemakan daging sepuluh kali lebih cenderung menjadi gemuk daripada vegan. Makanan vegetarian memberikan kita semua nutrisi yang kita perlukan, tanpa lemak jenuh, kolesterol, dan bahan pencemar.

Sebaliknya, banyak yang berpendapat bahwa tumbuhan itu hidup juga. Ini benar, tetapi tumbuhan hanya memiliki sepuluh persen kesadaran sedangkan hewan-hewan memiliki kesadaran sepadan dengan manusia. Karena tumbuhan tidak dapat bergerak, jadi sensasi mengalami rasa sakit lebih sedikit. Jadi, tumbuhan sepenuhnya berbeda secara fisiologis dari mamalia. Jika Anda memotong cabang atau daun dari sebuah pohon, maka pohon itu akan tumbuh dengan subur dan tumbuh lebih banyak. Di sisi lain, hewan tidak berhasrat atas pemangkasan yang teratur. Dapatkah Anda memotong sebuah kaki sapi dan berharap akan tumbuh empat kaki lagi?

Memelihara hewan untuk dimakan akan mendatangkan malapetaka di Bumi. Lingkungan, sumber alam, dan kesehatan kita semakin memburuk. Meskipun sebagian besar dari kita tidak terlibat langsung dalam pemotongan hewan, akan tetapi manusia telah mengembangkan kebiasaan ini berdasarkan tekanan dari masyarakat, mereka tidak menyadari apa yang terjadi terhadap hewan-hewan yang kita makan. Pernah disebutkan bahwa seseorang yang pernah mengunjungi rumah jagal akan membuat mereka menjadi seorang vegetarian seumur hidup. Karena kitalah yang menciptakan teriak kesakitan dan ketakutan mereka.” Jadi jika Anda pernah memutuskan untuk memanggang hewan yang jinak sekali lagi……. Ingatlah bahwa Anda mengkonsumsi daging hewan yang sepadan dengan hewan peliharaan yang sangat Anda sayangi. Tetapi perbedaannya adalah bahwa hewan ini disiksa. courtesy of www.pemanasanglobal.net

Earth Hour 2009

2009-03-06T09:16:00.001+07:00

KAPAN ?
Sabtu, 28 Maret 2009 Pukul 20.30 - 21.30

APA ITU EARTH HOUR ?
Earth Hour merupakan kampanye perubahan iklim global WWF, yang mengajak Individu, pelaku bisnis, pemerintah untuk mematikan lampu selama 1 jam dalam rangka menunjukkan dukungan terhadap penanggulangan perubahan iklim.

SEJARAHNYA ?
Kampanye Earth Hour ini dimulai di Sydney pada 31 Maret 2007 dimana lebih dari 2 juta orang dan 2000 pelaku bisnis di seluruh kota mematikan lampu dan peralatan elektronik mereka selama 1 jam. Sejak dimulainya kampanye ini, pesan Earth Hour telah mendunia.

Pada tahun 2008, 50 juta orang di 35 negara mematikan lampu mereka sebagai dukungan terhadap Earth Hour yang menyampaikan pesan ke seluruh duniabahwa aksi individu yang dilakukan secara bersama sesungguhnya dapat mengubah dunia.
Earth Hour 2009 ditargetkan dapat menjangkau 1 milyar orang di 1.000 kota seluruh dunia.

KENAPA ?
Dampak dari perubahan iklim yang disebabkan oleh emisi karbon menunjukkan ancaman besar pada kehidupan manusia di bumi. Hanya dengan mengubah sikap masyarakat dunia secara global dalam penggunaan sumber energi yang menghasilkan emisi karbon, kita dapat mengurangi ancaman ini.

Earth Hour merupakan sebuah seruan global dari berbagai pihak baik individu, pelaku bisnis, politisi maupun pemerintah di seluruh dunia bahwa upaya untuk menekan laju perubahan iklim merupakan tanggung jawab bersama.

APA YANG INGIN DICAPAI ?
Tujuan dari Earth Hour 2009 adalah menjangkau sebanyak mungkin individu, rumah tangga dan pelaku bisnis untuk mematikan lampu mereka serta peralatan elektronik selama 1 jam.

Earth Hour bertujuan untuk mendidik masyarakat dunia tentang ancaman perubahan iklim dan begitu mudahnya bagi individu dan pelaku bisnis untuk melakukan perubahan kecil yang dapat menciptakan perubahan besar dalam keseharian mereka dan operasi perusahaan.

Earth Hour 2009, diharapkan dapat memberikan mandat kepada pemimpin dunia yang akan menghadiri Konferensi Perubahan Iklim PBB di Kopenhagen, Desember 2009 untuk melakukan reformasi lingkungan, yakni dengan menghasilkan kesepakatan baru tentang perubahan iklim menggantikan Protokol Kyoto.

DIMANA ?
Saat ini sudah 74 kota yang ikut berapartisipasi dan berkomitmen dari negara:
Austarlia, Bolivia, Bulgaria, Canada, Republik Rakyat Cina, Costa Rica, Denmark, Pesekutuan Micronesia, Fiji, Finland, Itali, Jordan, Mexico, New Zealand, Norwegia, Filipina, Polandia, Portugal, Russia, Singapore, Swedia, Turki, UEA, UK, USA.

dan beberapa landmark dunia:
1. Gedung Opera (Sydney)
2. CN Tower (Toronto)
3. Table Mountain (Cape Town)
4. Adia Building (Abu Dhabi) – bangunan tertinggi di Abu Dhabi
5. Burj Dubai (Dubai) – bangunan tertinggi di dunia
6. Federation Tower (Moscow)
7. Burj al Arab (Dubai) – symbol hotel bintang 6
8. Quirinale (Roma) - Rumah dinas Presiden Itali
9. National University (Singapore)
10. Sky Tower (Auckland)
11. Auckland Harbour Bridge (Auckland)
12. Helsinki Cathedral (Helsinki)

FAKTANYA ?
1. Mematikan lampu 1 jam (kurang lebih) di Jakarta = 300MW alias cukup untuk
mengistirahatkan 1 pembangkit listrik
2. Mengurangi beban biaya listrik Jakarta sekitar Rp 200 juta
3. Mengurangi emisi CO2 sekitar 1 Ton CO2

YANG BISA KITA LAKUKAN ?
1. Matikan LAMPU selama 1 jam, dan pastikan semua alat elektronik yang tidak sedang dipakai dalam kondisi power off, bukan stand by!!!
2. Sebarkan pesan ini ke teman-teman anda
3. Sign up di website www.earthhour.org/indonesia
4. Mengajak semua teman, orang tua, saudara, rekan kerja, tetangga ikut berpartisipasi
5. Dokumentasikan partisipasi Anda dan upload di earthhour.org/indonesia
6. Tulis pengalaman Anda dan sebarkan melalui blog yang Anda punya

INFORMASI LEBIH LANJUT ?
1. http://www.voteearth2009.org
2. http://www.earthhour.org atau earthhour.org/indonesia
3. http://www.wwf.or.id/climate

Keajaiban Air..

2009-02-28T09:23:00.000+07:00

Kristal air secara alami terbentuk pada saat turunnya hujan salju, umumnya berbentuk segi lima atau enam dengan variasi bentuk pada masing-masing ujungnya. Yang mengherankan, formasi kristal air dapat berupa bentuk yang sangat rumit dan simetris.
Dr Masaru Emoto dari Jepang telah memulai penelitian terhadap kristal air ini dan memplublikasikan hasil penelitiannya yang sangat menarik pada dunia. Mulanya dia mengambil beberapa sampel air, antara lain air ledeng, air sungai dan air pegunungan kemudian membekukannya dan mulai memfoto kristal air yang terbentuk.
Memmoto kristal air bukanlah hal yang mudah, karena begitu keluar dari pendingin, kristal akan segera meleleh. Hasil penelitiannya menunjukkan bahwa kristal air dari tempat terlindung seperti danau, sungai dan mata air dapat membentuk kristal air yang sempurna, sementara air ledeng menghasilkan kristal yang pecah atau tidak sempurna. Yang lebih mengherankan lagi, bila air tersebut sebelum dikristalkan dipapar dengan kata-kata seperti “danke” (Jerman), “thank you” (Inggris), “terimakasih” (Indonesia) maka akan membentuk kristal yang berbeda namun memiliki keindahan yang serupa.
Sementara bila dipapar kata “I hate you” maka kristal air tidak akan terbentuk atau rusak. Hal ini sangat menarik karena air merespon secara langsung suara kita demikian pula bila dipapar musik klasik akan lebih indah hasilnya dari musik heavy metal. Untuk lebih jelasnya bisa membaca buku The Message from Water by Masaru Emoto.

Beberapa keajaiban air:

Air pada fasa padat jauh lebih ringan daripada air pada fasa cair. Karena itu es mengambang. Ini penting untuk kehidupan di danau air tawar, karena es berperan sebagai penyekat terhadap pelepasan energi panas sehingga pembekuan air dari permukaan hingga ke dasar tidak terjadi.
Titik beku berkurang di bawah tekanan, sehingga pen-cairan terjadi di dasar glacier yang memudahkan terjadinya aliran glacier.
Rantai H putus di bawah tekanan, sehingga es di bawah tekanan akan menjadi plastis, sehingga daratan es di Antartika dan Artik mengalir melepaskan gunung es di atasnya. Tanpa proses ini, maka semua air akan menjadi es di daerah kutub.

Di Jepang, Dr. Masaru Emoto dari Universitas Yokohama dg tekun melakukan penelitian tentang perilaku air dan menulis buku tentang ’the True Power of Water’.

Menurut dia air bisa "mendengar" kata-kata, "membaca" tulisan, dan "mengerti" pesan dan serta merekam pesan seperti pita magnetik atau compact disk. Semakin kuat konsentrasi pemberi pesan, semakin dalam pesan tercetak di air. Air bisa menransfer pesan tadi melalui molekul air yang lain.

Ketika dibacakan doa untuk kesembuhan didepan sebotol air maka terekam kristal seperti gambar dibawah

Ketika dicoba dibacakan doa Islam, kristal bersegi enam dengan lima cabang daun muncul berkilauan.

Ketika diputarkan musik symphony Mozart, kristal muncul berbentuk bunga.

Ketika musik heavy metal diperdengarkan, kristal akan hancur

Kristal air ini merekam lagu ‘Imagine’ dari John Lennon. Spt lagunya, kristal ini unik dan indah. Setiap elemen tumbuh dengan harmonis.

Saat diungkapkan ‘war’, kepada kristal air (sebelah kiri), maka bentuk kristal ‘peace’ (kanan) tertabrak oleh benda mirip pesawat (WTC pada 9 Sept). Gb direkam sebelum kejadian.

Selanjutnya ditunjukkan kata ”malaikat” : terbentuk rantai dengan kristal hexagonal yang indah (gambar kiri) dan ketika ditunjukan kata "setan", kristal berbentuk buruk dengan bola api di tengah (gambar kanan).

Kristal air yang direkam dari mata air yang masih jernih di Jepang

Subhanallah Maha Suci Allah Yang Telah Menciptakan Bumi, Langit Beserta Isinya

Sholawat Nariyah

2009-01-17T09:03:00.000+07:00

Allohumma sholli 'sholaatan kaamilatan wa sallim salaaman taaamman 'ala sayyidina Muhammadinilladzi tanhallu bihil 'uqodu wa tanfariju bihil qurobu wa tuqdho bihil hawaaiju wa tunalu bihir roghooibu wa husnul khowaatimu wa yustasqol ghomamu biwajhihil kariem wa 'ala aalihi wa shohbihi fie kulli lamhatin wa nafasim bi'adadi kulli ma'lumin laka

Artinya : Ya Alloh berilah sholawat dengan sholawat yang sempurna dan berilah salam dengan salam yang sempurna atas penghulu kami Muhammad yang dengannya terlepas segala ikatan, lenyap segala kesedihan, terpenuhi segala kebutuhan, tercapai segala kesenangan, semua diakhiri dengan kebaikan, hujan diturunkan, berkat dirinya yang pemurah, juga atas keluarga dan sahabat-sahabatnya dalam setiap kedipan mata dan hembusan nafas sebanyak hitungan segala yang ada dalam pengetahuanMU

Sholawat ini pernah diijazahkan oleh ustadz Mawardi, salah seorang muthowwif jamaah hajji Tazkia yang sudah menetap lama di Saudi. Sholawat ini hendaknya dibaca 11 kali setelah sholat fardhu. Sholawat ini banyak faedahnya

Belakangan setelah beberapa waktu berlalu saya membaca kitab terjemahan Afdhal al Salawat 'ala Sayyid as Sadat karangan Yusuf bin Ismail an Nabhani (diterjemahkan oleh Muzammal Noer dengan judul Bershalawat untuk mendapat keberkahan hidup, dengan penerbit Mitra Pustaka, Cetakan I Desember 2003 hal 302)
Imam Ad Dinawari berkata : Siapa saja membaca shalawat setiap selesai sholat sebanyak 11 kali dan ia menjadikannya sebagai bacaan rutin maka rizkinya tidak akan pernah putus dan ia mendapatkan derajat yang tinggi...

KAMPUNG BUDAYA SINDANGBARANG

2009-01-08T11:44:00.000+07:00

Kampung budaya sindangbarang terletak di desa pasir eurih kecamatan tamansari kabupaten Bogor Jawa Barat. Berjarak hanya 5 km dari kota bogor, atau 60 km dari kota Jakarta. Berada pada ketinggian 350 – 500 meter dpl, terdiri dari 14 RW dan 54 RT dengan jumlah penduduk mencapai 12000 jiwa. Mata pencaharian sebagian Pesar penduduk adalah menjadi pengrajin sendal sepatu dan petani. Penduduknya 90% beragama Islam dan masih memegang sistim kekeluargaan yang sangat tinggi dalam kehidupan sehari-harinya. Curah hujan di kampung budaya sindangbarang cukup sedang dan cuacanya berkisar antara 23 derajat C pada malam hari dan 30 derajat C pada siang hari.

Di Kampung budaya Sindangbarang terdapat 8 macam kesenian Sunda yang telah direvitalisasi dan dilestarikan oleh para penduduknya. Disini terdapat pula situs-situs purbakala peninggalan kerajaan Pajajaran berupa Bukit-bukit berundak.Di sindangbarang setiap satu tahun sekali diselenggarkan upacara adat Seren Taun yaitu upacara ungkapan rasa syukur masyarakat terhadap Tuhan Yang Maha Esa atas hasil Panen dan hasil bumi yang diperoleh pada tahun ini dan berharap hasil panen tahun depan akan lebih baik lagi.

Untuk melestarikan kesenian tradisional di kampung budaya, maka diselenggarakan pelatihan tari dan gamelan untuk anak-anak muda secara gratis oleh kampung budaya. Anak-anak muda yang telah mahir di bidang kesenian masing-masing maka akan dilibatkan dalam pementasan menyambut tamu yang tentunya akan menambah penghasilan untuk mereka sendiri.

Untuk melestarikan situs-situs purbakala , kampung budaya bekerja sama dengan FIB UI melakukan penelitian , dokumentasi dan menyelenggarakan seminar mengenai situs peninggalan kerajaan Pajajaran tersebut. Folklore mengenai Sindangbarang sendiri telah dicoba untuk dibukukan oleh teman-teman dari FIB UI.

Saat ini rumah-rumah adat dan tradisi budaya di Kp Budaya Sindangbarang telah direkontruksi dan direvitalisasi dengan bimbingan dan petunjuk dari Bapak Anis Djatisunda seorang Sesepuh Sindangbarang dan Budayawan Jawa Barat. Revitalisasi budaya dan rumah-rumah adat tersebut memang perlu dilakukan agar orang sunda tidak kehilangan jatidirinya.

Tinggal bersama kokolot merupakan salah satu keunikan di kampung budaya Sindangbarang. Karena merupakan kampung budaya maka para tamu akan merasakan suasana kehidupan perkampungan sehari-hari. Dimana para tamu akan tinggal bersama kokolot dan seniman yang memang tinggal di kampung budaya. Para tamu akan menemui suasana para ibu-ibu menumbug padi di saung lisung, memasak dengan menggunakan kayu bakar dan Hawu (kompor tradisional sunda),melihat para petani bercocok tanam, belajar kesenian tradisional dll

Nilai Sejarah
Sindangbarang, nama tersebut telah dikenal dan tercatat dalam babad pakuan / pajajaran sebagai salah satu daerah penting kerajaan sunda dan pajajaran. Hal ini disebabkan di sindangbarang terdapat salah satu keraton kerajaan tempat tinggalnya salah satu istri dari prabu Siliwangi yang bernama Dewi Kentring Manik Mayang Sunda. Sedangkan penguasa sindangbarang saat itu adalah Surabima Panjiwirajaya atau Amuk Murugul. Bahkan Putra Prabu Siliwangi dan Kentring manik mayang sunda yang bernama Guru Gantangan lahir dan dibesarkan di Sindangbarang.

Sampai saat ini masih ada peninggalan purbakala berupa Taman Sri bagenda di Sindangbarang, yaitu taman yang berupa kolam dengan panjang 15 X 45 meter, dan 33 buah titik Punden Berundak.

Courtesy : www.kp-sindangbarang.com

Lebih asyik bikin mainan sendiri

2008-12-05T14:53:00.000+07:00

Murah meriah sekaligus memacu kreativitas anak. "Kardus bisa buat apa, Ma?" Ayesha, 7 tahun, siswa kelas I sekolah dasar di Depok, Jawa Barat, bertanya kepada ibunya. Gadis kecil itu bingung. Ia berharap mendapatkan mainan, tapi sang bunda malah memberinya kardus bekas. Ela, sang ibu, hanya bisa menggelengkan kepala. "Dasar anak zaman sekarang. Saya heran karena waktu saya kecil, kardus bekas atau apa pun bisa dijadikan mainan," katanya.

Dengan sabar akhirnya ia membimbing sang putri membuat mainan dari kardus bekas. Ayesha terkagum-kagum melihat ibunya tangkas membuat mobil-mobilan, rumah-rumahan, bahkan perabot rumah tangga.

Ela bukan satu-satunya orang tua yang heran atas minimnya kreasi anak masa kini untuk membuat sendiri mainan dari bahan yang ada di sekitarnya. Edi Susilo, 32 tahun, seorang ayah warga Citeureup, Bogor, juga merasakannya. "Bayangkan, anak bisa dengan mudah mendapatkan mainan, asalkan orang tua punya duit," kata Edi. Itu berbeda dengan pengalaman Edi. Saat kanak-kanak, dia harus membuat sendiri mainan yang dia inginkan. Edi menyebut beberapa jenis mainan tradisional yang dulu dia mainkan, antara lain

mobil-mobilan dari kulit jeruk bali, boneka dari jerami, senapan dari bambu atau pelepah daun pisang, tulup (sumpit) dari bambu, keris-kerisan dari janur, layang-layang, kitiran, pesawat, dan perahu dari kertas.

Sayang, kata Edi, kepadatan kota metropolitan menyebabkan bahan-bahan untuk membuat mainan tradisional sulit didapat. Walhasil, kepada anak semata wayangnya, Vieri Eka Putra, 6 tahun, Edi hanya bisa mengajarkan membuat mainan dari kertas, seperti kapal, perahu, dan kitiran. Mainan itu ternyata tidak membuat Vieri tertarik. "Dia lebih suka mainan modern," ujar Edi.

Pauline, anggota staf promosi di sebuah majalah anak, merasa pengaruh orang tua sangat besar terhadap kecenderungan anak memilih mainan. Dia terkejut atas perilaku seorang ibu yang memaksa anaknya membeli boneka seharga ratusan ribu rupiah saat ia mengadakan pameran. "Padahal anaknya ingin mainan kincir angin yang dirakit dari kertas," kata Pauline. Menurut dia, dari segi kreativitas, jelas mainan rakitan dari kertas akan lebih mengasyikkan bagi anak.

Tak banyak lembaga yang peduli terhadap semakin tergesernya mainan tradisional di masyarakat kita. Salah satu yang peduli adalah restoran TeSaTe di Plaza Senayan, Jakarta Pusat. Beberapa pekan lalu resto ini membuat demo merakit mainan tradisional. Rencananya demo ini akan digelar setiap pekan. Radityo Djadjoeri, konsultan hubungan masyarakat TeSaTe, mengatakan bahwa demo itu diikuti lima anak dan ibunya. Mereka serius memperhatikan langkah demi langkah cara merakit janur yang diperagakan oleh Jaja Budiatin, perajin janur dari Pasar Minggu, Jakarta Selatan. "Anak-anak begitu antusias mengikuti demo tersebut," kata Radityo.

Jaja memperagakan cara membuat oncer (ragam hiasan untuk tenda), ayam-ayaman, bintang, payung, trompet, keris, anyaman tikar, bandul, rantai, burung merak, perahu layar, dan lainnya.

Psikolog Evita Adnan mengatakan, pada umumnya, jenis mainan atau permainan tradisional sangat baik untuk merangsang kreativitas anak. Proses pembuatan sebuah mainan tradisional, kata dia, dapat menumbuhkan daya kreativitas yang luar biasa bagi si anak. Mobil-mobilan, misalnya, bisa dibuat dari tanah liat, kulit jeruk, atau kayu. "Nah, dalam proses pembuatan mainan ini, anak dituntut bisa membayangkan bentuk mobil, kemudian membuatnya dengan kreasi dia sendiri," ujar Evita ketika dihubungi di Jakarta, Selasa lalu. (Erwin Dariyanto )

Tips:
Libatkan anak dalam proses
1. Hadirkan anak Anda selama proses pembuatan mainan sebagai bahan dasar pelajaan bagi sang anak.
2. Jika anak Anda banyak bertanya, berilah jawaban mudah dan masuk akal. Misalnya, tentang harganya yang lebih murah atau betapa bahannya dengan mudah bisa ditemukan di sekitar kita.
3. Hindarkan anak dari pisau. Sebaiknya gunakan pisau pemotong sehingga apabila tidak digunakan lagi, bisa segera diamankan ke dalam saku Anda.
4. Ceritakan masa kecil Anda (selama Anda membuat mainan) kepada anak agar mereka kelak bangga memiliki orang tua cerdik dan bijak.
5. Jika bisa, ajak anak-anak tetangga atau teman anak Anda untuk melatih kerja sama tim.
6. Usahakan membuat modifiksasi bentuk mainan agar tradisi membuat mainan sendiri bagi sang anak berkembang dari masa ke masa.

Menumbuhkan jiwa seni pada anak

2008-12-05T09:32:00.000+07:00

Dengan seni hidup akan lebih indah
Ada perpaduan warna, suara, gambar,dan irama yang bisa kita rasakan
Damai dan menentramkan tatkala rasa itu bergejolak dalam dada

Sepenggal kata-kata manis yang diucapkan oleh Hasan Basri, psikolog sosial UGM tentang apakah seni itu. Seni adalah sesuatu yang dirasakan dan selalu menyenangkan. Seni dibutuhkan untuk memenuhi kebutuhan rasa seseorang. Bagus, jelek, manis, cantik, itulah rasa seni yang timbul secara otomatis dalam diri setiap orang.
Dalam seni adalah ada sebuah maksud komunikasi. Kita berkomunikasi melalui tubuh menggunakan gerak isyarat, sikap tubuh, ekspresi wajah dan gerak refleks. Seni adalah bahasa bergambar yang bisa membuat kita untuk mengerti dan mengakses kedua hal, baik persepsi secara sadar maupun tidak sadar dan emosi-emosi.
Seni dimiliki masing-masing individu ketika ia berada dalam kandungan si ibu. Seni diolah lewat kandungan, dan masa kanak-kanaklah adalah masa yang penting untuk pertumbuhan jiwa seni. Masa anak-anak adalah masa yang menyenangkan dan membahagiakan. Ada 3 ciri yang mendasari dan mendominasi dunia anak, diantaranya,
1. Adanya rasa kebahagiaan pada diri anak-anak, yaitu kondisi ketika batin masih merasa tenteram.
2. Adanya kebebasan pada diri anak-anak, yaitu pada anak-anak tidak ada ketergantungan psikologis baik pada seseorang maupun kepada masyarakat tentang nilai-nilai, tentang kebenaran, tentang keindahan yang harus diikuti.
3. Adanya subyek aku pada diri anak-anak, yaitu karena adanya kebahagiaan dan kebebasan dalam diri anak-anak secara total, maka diri menjadi lebih penting sekali, sehingga kepribadian dapat menentukan penuh.
Sifat dasar anak inilah yang menjadi alasan mengapa seni harus ditumbuhkan sejak masa anak-anak. Mengembangkan jiwa seni pada anak merupakan hal yang perlu berjalan beriringan dengan kecerdasan kognitif. Inilah yang dinamakan dengan keseimbangan antara otak kanan dan otak kiri. Otak adalah organ tubuh terpenting manusia yang berfungsi sebagai pusat kontrol dan pusat kendali atas semua sistem dalam tubuh. Otak merupakan organ inti kecerdasan dan kemampuan berpikir manusia.

Menurut riset Prof Regar Sperry otak cenderung membagi aktivitas menjadi dua yaitu, aktivitas otak kiri dan aktivitas otak kanan. Bila yang satu aktif yang lain cenderung in aktif. Fungsi otak dibagi dibagi 2 :
• Otak kanan -- KREATIF — Bentuk, Intuisi, lagu &musik, warna warni, simbol, gambar, imajinasi, mengkhayal
• Otak kiri – ANALITIK — Bahasa verbal, matematika, logika, angka-angka, urutan-urutan, penilaian, analisis, linier

Pertumbuhan otak anak paling pesat terjadi pada usia 0-2 tahun, dimana volume otak akan mencapai 80%. Akan tetapi tidak berarti bahwa perkembangan otak berhenti hanya sampai di situ saja. Volume otak anak terus berjalan hingga usia 12 tahun. Bahkan setelah usia 12 tahun, nutrisi dan stimulasi bagi perkembangan otak masih tetap sangat dibutuhkan.
Akhirnya terjawab sudah mengapa seni mulai ditumbuhkan sejak masa anak-anak. Keseimbangan otak kanan dan otak kiri sangatlah menjadi faktor penting dalam pertumbuhan otak. Seni merupakan sesuatu hal yang membantu keseimbangan otak kanan kita. Berdasarkan penelitian, anak yang tumbuh tanpa dibarengi dengan kemampuan seni maka kehidupannya akan menjadi gersang. Anak menjadi kaku, tidak hanya dalam berinteraksi dengan lingkungan tapi juga dalam memandang persoalannya. Sebagai informasi, persentase keberhasilan seseorang itu 77 hingga 80% ditentukan oleh Emosional Quation, baru selebihnya Intelegence Quation.

Manfaat pendidikan seni bagi anak
1. Anak jadi lebih mudah menyerap masukan dan saran yang diberikan.
2. Kepekaan terhadap alam menjadi lebih baik karena terbiasa membuat sesuatu yang indah.
3. Memberikan kesenangan dan dapat membantu buah hati mempelajari berbagai ketrampilan yang perlu dikuasai, atau sesuatu dengan bakat mereka.
4. Membantu anak mengekspresikan dan mengembangkan kreatifitasnya dengan bebas.
5. Anak mampu mengendalikan emosi, perasaan sedih atau senang. Emosi itu dapat di curahkan melalui karya seni yang mereka hasilkan.
6. Imajinasi anak bisa berkembang lewat karya yang dihasilkan.
7. Membangun perasaan pada anak dan memberi banyak pengalaman seni kreatif.
8. Apresiasi mereka terhadap keindahan akan tumbuh dan berkembang dalam dirinya. Kalau kepekaan itu sudah tumbuh, anak bisa menghasilkan karya yang bagus.
9. Pendidikan seni bisa memberi pengaruh positif dalam hal persepsi emosi anak.
Untuk anak-anak, kegiatan seni adalah sebuah kegiatan yang spontan. Anak kecil akan menggunakan segala materi, yang lengket sekalipun untuk membuat tanda, mengotori semua permukaan yang dapat dicapainya. Itu adalah cara mereka untuk menjelajahi diri mereka sendiri yang berhubungan dengan lingkungan sekitar.
“Pertumbuhan jiwa seni setiap anak berbeda. Itu tergantung lingkungan yang kondusif dan peran orangtua. Jadi karena pengaruh itulah, jiwa seni yang dimiliki oleh setiap orang berbeda-beda intesitasnya dan kualitasnya,“ ungkap Prof Hasan. Ia menambahkan bahwa pelatihan terhadap seni juga menjadi faktor pengembangan seni pada anak.
Lingkungan kondusif adalah lingkungan dimana anak bisa merasakan kebahagiaan dan kebebasan berekspesi. Lingkungan keluarga yang ramah, harmonis, dan nyaman akan semakin memacu pengembangan jiwa seni anak. Tak hanya itu saja, perabot rumah atau fasilitas yang digunakan mereka di rumah juga mempengaruhi jiwa seni, karena di situ mereka melihat banyak sekali perpaduan warna dan bentuk. Dari inilah mereka bisa merasakan sesuatu yang memunculkan sense of art pada jiwanya.
Memperkenalkan anak pada dunia seni pun selayaknya secara perlahan dan tidak dibatasi. Orang tua sangat memiliki peran penting dalam membentuk jiwa seni pada anak. Orangtua harus peka terhadap kesenangan anak. Misalnya, jika anak menggambar langit dengan warna merah jambu, sebaiknya tidak terburu disalahkan, karena lama-kelamaan hal itu dapat menyebabkan anak menjadi tidak percaya diri dan ujung-ujungnya mematikan kreativitas. Berikanlah media bagi anak untuk mengekspresikan diri terutama jika anak memiliki minat besar di bidang tersebut, maka ikutkan mereka dalam sebuah sanggar, mengikuti lomba, kegiatan ekstra kurikuler di sekolah, dan masih banyak lagi.
“Pujian dari orangtua sangat penting diberikan pada orang tua ketika anak berhasil melakukan sesuatu. Pujian bagi seorang anak merupakan sebuah penghargaan tersendiri yang membuat mereka bisa melakukan penerimaan terhadap segala seguatu. Pujian menjadi motivasi bagi mereka,”ungkap Hasan.
Seni menghaluskan setiap jiwa individu. Lewat seni, keindahan selalu bisa dirasakan.
BOX
Tips
Apa saja yang bisa menumbuhkan jiwa seni pada anak
1. Orangtua harus dewasa dalam memahami dan memandang kreativitas anak
2. Berikan mereka kebebasan. Seni memunculkan kreativitas dan kreativitas membutuhkan sebanyak mungkin kebebasan dalam berkarya. Tidak ada cara yang salah dalam mereka menggambar, melukis atau mewarnai. Mengarahkan dan memberi saran terlalu banyak pada si Kecil saat ia berkreasi dapat menghambat kreativitasnya. Biarkan ia berkreasi sesuka hati, tetapi bila ia bertanya atau minta pertolongan, anda selalu siap untuk membantunya.
3. Koleksi karya-karyanya. Tingkatkan rasa keberhasilan anak dengan menggantungkan gambar-gambar atau karya-karyanya disekitar rumah, ditempel di kulkas dengan magnet, di ruang bermain, di pintu kamarnya, di kaca rias kamar anda, di dekat tempat tidur Anda. Kalau ia suka bernyanyi atau menari, biarkan ia menampilkannya pada Anda. Tapi jangan memaksanya untuk tampil di depan umum jika ia tidak mau.
4. Berceritalah. Jangan terlalu bergantung pada buku-buku cerita anak saja, Anda juga bisa bercerita padanya dengan menciptakan karakter-karakter sendiri. Libatkan anak dengan memintanya untuk membantu menyelesaikan masalah dari karakter-karakter tersebut. Cara yang lain seperti meminta anak untuk menyelesaikan cerita juga bisa dilakukan.
5. Ajari anak Anda mengenal dunia seni. Membacakan buku cerita yang sesuai dengan umurnya, mengajaknya mendengarkan musik, mengajak mereka dalam setiap festival kesenian seperti ke pameran lukisan, pertunjukan wayang, dan sebagainya. Biasakan anak untuk mengenali karya seni, sastra, dan musik.
6. Lihat lebih jauh dari bidang seninya. Ada banyak tempat untuk mengembangkan seni mereka. Anak bisa pintar bermain pasir (yang nantinya bisa membantu dia menjadi ilmuwan, arsitek, insinyur) atau di dapur, atau bahkan di lemari pakaian (ia bisa menjadi perancang mode). Selain itudengan memasukkan anak ke sanggar-sanggar seni atau mengikutkan mereka pada les kesenian semakin bisa mengasah dan melatih jiwa seni mereka. (Oleh Olivia Lewi Pramesti)

courtesy of http://koranjogja.com

Karinding, Music Tradional Indonesia

2008-11-29T10:18:00.000+07:00

Karinding adalah sebuah alat yang digunakan orang tua dulu sebagai alat untuk mengusir hama di sawah. sekarang disebutnya sebagai alat musik karena menghasilkan bunyi . dan alat ini konon sebagai alat yang telah digunakan orang tua (karuhun) sejak jaman sebelum ditemukannya Kacapi, yang usia kecapi itu sendiri sudah mencapai lebih dari lima ratus tahun yang lalu, diperkirakan alat ini sudah lebih tua dari 600 tahun .
Jenis alat seperti Karinding ini adalah alat musik yang dimiliki oleh berbagai suku yang bukan hanya di tatar sunda, juga di daerah bahkan negara dan bangsa lain, seperti misal jenis ini di Jawa tengah disebutnya sebagai Rinding, dan di Bali dikenal sebagai Genggong. bahan dan suara yang dihasilkan hampir tidak ada bedanya,yang berbeda adalah cara memainkannya, ada yang di Trim (di getarkan dengan di sentir) dan di Tap ( dipukul).
sedang alat sejenis di luar dikenal dengan istilah Zuesharp ( harpanya dewa Zues)
Material yang digunakan (di wilayah jawa barat) untuk membuat karinding ini ada dua jenis, pelepah kawung dan Bambu, sedang Zeusharp menggunakan material besi dan baja.
Jenis bahan dan jenis disain bentuk karinding, itu menunjukan perbedaan usia, tempat dan sebagai perbedaan gender pemakai. Semisal bahan bambu yang lebih menyerupai susuk sanggul, ini untuk perempuan,karena konon ibu-ibu menyimpannya dengan di tancapkan disanggul. Sedang yang laki-laki menggunakan pelapah kawung dengan ukuran lebih pendek, karena biasa disimpan di tempat mereka menyimpan bako. tetapi juga sebagai perbedaan tempat dimana dibuatnya, seperti diwilayah priangan timur, karinding lebih banyak menggunakan bahan bambu karena bahan ini menjadi bagian dari kehidupannya.

Memainkan Karinding
cukup mudah untuk siapa saja, dengan cara di pukul memperlakukan alat ini seperti alat musik perkusi, dengan menggunakan satu jari tangan, dan ketika kita sudah mampu menghasilkan getaran secara intens,dengan di tempelkan di mulut sebagai resonansi nya, dan lidah sebagai pengontrol bunyi yang kita inginkan.
Ada beberapa jenis suara yang dihasilkan, yaitu dengan mulut kosong tanpa napas dan dengan menggunakan napas,ini akan menghasilkan bunyi yang berbeda. Alat ini bisa menghasilkan suara yang khas dari tiap orang, sebutlah jenis melodi, rhytm dan bass nya bisa di hasilkan, atawa kendang, saron, goong nya kata orang sunda mah, bahkan menyanyikan lagu dengan karinding sekalipun, bukan dengan vokal kita, ini tergantung bagaimana kita bisa memainkan lidah dan napas.
Yang menarik dari Karinding ini adalah, Pertama dengan cara di pukul ini mampu menghasilkan bunyi yang variatif cukup banyak. Kedua, suara tiap orang yang memainkan akan berbeda dengan yang lainnya, walaupun memainkan jenis pukulan (Rahel) yang sama , ini berbeda karena tiap orang memilki konstruksi mulut yang berbeda.

Low Desibel
kenapa Karinding mampu menghasilkan suara yang bisa mengusir hama?
Suara yang dihasilkan berupa getaran yang tidak begitu jelas terdengar oleh telinga kita, secara ilmu suara di kategorikan pada jenis low desibel, yang getaran ini cuma bisa didengar oleh jenis binatang jenis insect, konon inilah yang dikenal sekarang sebagai suara ultrasonik.

Dan alat ini, leluhur kita membuatnya sebagai alat pengusir hama (bagaimana mereka bisa mengitung samapi kesana?) dan supaya betah memainkan alat ini, maka di ciptakanlah alat yang sangat incredible ini, ya mengusir hama, ya bermain musik, ya asik!. dahsyat kan?
belakangan kita tahu microsoft mengeluarkan software anti nyamuk, pernah denger?, juga TV Media menjual sebuah alat ultrasonic yang di connect ke listrik. coba dengarkan apa yang diahsilkan oleh alat ini semua? sebuah getaran!
Ini lah bedanya ilmu leluhur, alat bukan cuma sekedar alat, tetapi ada perhitungan lain yang lebih dari itu, coba bayangkan hubungan ilmu leluhur kita antar satu dengan lainnya.
seperti Karinding ini, alat pengusir hama dengan bermain musik, bebas pestisida, dan binatang juga harus hidup untuk keseimbangan alam ini,jadi tidak perlu dibunuh.
Kenapa kita memainkan karinding denga di pukul? marilah kita lihat alat musik sunda yang dasarnya sebagai alat perkusi, calung, angklung,kendang,goong,saron bonang mah sudah jelas, beberapa alat musik gesek pun ada yang memainkannya dengan dipukul di beberapa rhytme tertentu, tarawangsa misalnya.
Kecanggihan alat ini sebagai bukti bahwa karuhun urang sunda sebagai "bangsa yang sudah memiliki kebudayaan, bahasa, tulisan bahkan hitungannya pun sudah sampai ke tingkat Matrix,itu pada tahun 122 Masehi" percaya?
pasti tidak, karena kita tidak pernah mendengar apa dan siapa Kisunda teh,

courtesy : http://yoyoyogasmana.multiply.com/journal

Kertas Daur Ulang Ekonomis Tinggi Dan Artistik

2008-11-25T15:10:00.001+07:00

Seiring dengan perkembangan zaman, juga pertumbuhan dan kemunduran perekonomian, sering kita dihadapkan pada masalah-masalah hasil perkembangan zaman tersebut. Sebut saja masalah kebersihan dan sampah, yang dimana sampah-sampah setiap hari semakin meningkat dengan pesatnya kebutuhan industri dan hasil industri tetapi tidak memperhatikan dampak-dampak yang dihasilkan dari kebutuhan industri dan hasil industri tersebut. Misalkan industri kertas yang membutuhkan pohon-pohon sebagai bahan baku utama pembuatan kertas, makan dilakukankanlah penebangan pohon, akan tetapi dibarengin dengan pemulihan kembali atau menanam kembali area yang sudah ditebangi. Begitu juga di industri lainnya yang membutuhkan banyak kertas salah satunya sebagai media informasi dan media pendidikan. Seringkali kertas-kertas tersebut digunakan tidak sesuai dengan aturan artinya pemborosan kertas. Padahal dengan menghemat kertas kita sudah membantu untuk menjaga kelangsungan kehidupan bumi. Untuk itu penghematan pemakaian kertas harus lebih ditingkatkan. Salah satunya dengan melakukan daur ulang kertas. Kertas daur ulang mempunya nilai ekonomis tinggi dan artistik yang tinggi pula, apabila dimanfaatkan sebaik-baiknya.

Apa yang dapat kita lakukan ?

Pertanyaan sederhana, namun memiliki jawaban yang sangat rumit, karena memiliki konsekuensi untuk merubah gaya hidup. Dari pola hidup boros sampah, menjadi gaya hidup ramah lingkungan. Untuk itu, langkah awal adalah mengenali berbagai jenis sampah dilingkungan kita. Kemudian mengklasifikasinya, mana yang masih bisa dipakai mana yang sudah habis pakai dan mana yang masih bisa diolah/didaur. Secara sederhana sampah dalam rumah dapat kita bagi menjadi 3 kategori, yakni sampah beracun, seperti batere bekas, bola lampu bekas dan barang-barang yang mengandung zat kimia. Kemudian sampah padat yang tidak dapat diurai, seperti plastik, botol, kaleng, dsb. Dan terakhir barang-barang yang masih dapat diurai oleh tanah seperti sisa sayuran, daun-daun, dsb.

Gaya hidup ramah lingkungan dikenal pula dengan semboyan 3R : Reduce, Reuse & Recycle. Artinya mengurangi tingkat kebutuhan akan sampah, menggunakan kembali sampah-sampah yang telah ada dan mendaur ulang sampah-sampah yang telah terpakai. Salah satu sampah yang dapat didaur ulang adalah kertas. Kertas daur ulang ini memiliki tekstur yang indah. Dari kertas daur ulang kita dapat membuat beraneka ragam kerajinan tangan.

Alat-alat yang digunakan dalam pembuatan kertas daur ulang :

BLENDER, fungsinya untuk menghancurkan kertas menjadi bubur kertas, atau dapat juga dimodifikasi dengan alat penghancur yang lebih besar.

BINGKAI CETAKAN, terdiri dari 2 bingkai dengan ukuran yang sama. Salah satu bingkai dilapisi dengan kain kasa.

EMBER KOTAK, fungsinya sebagai tempat pencampuran bubur kertas dengan air, sekaligus sebagai wadah pencetakan.

ALAS CETAK, fungsinya untuk tempat pengeringan kertas daur ulang dari bingkai cetakan, sehingga bingkai cetakan dapat digunakan kembali. Alas cetak ini bisa berupa tripleks yang dilapisi kain katun atau juga dapat berupa matras yang biasa digunakan untuk alas tidur kemping.

SPONDS PENGHISAP, fungsinya untuk menghisap air pada waktu transfer dari bingkai cetakan ke alas cetak.

GELAS PENAKAR, fungsinya untuk menakar perbandingan antara bubur kertas dengan air. Alat ini tidak mutlak ada.

ALAT PRESS, fungsinya untuk mengepress kertas daur ulang agar serat-seratnya dapat lebih rapat. Alat ini dapat berupa dua papan kayu yang berukuran sama dengan bingkai cetak, yang keempat sudutnya diberi lubang. Selanjutnya masing-masing lubang diberi mur dan baut penjepit untuk mempertemukan kedua sisi papan kayu tersebut.

EMBER wadah bubur kertas

KOMPOR & PANCI, fungsinya untuk merebus berbagai macam serat dan pewarna alam

ALU & LUMPANG, fungsinya untuk menumbuk berbagai serat agar lebih halus

SENDOK KAYU, fungsinya untuk mengadukberbagai campuran.

PISAU & GUNTING, fungsinya untuk memotong-motong serat tumbuhan

SARINGAN TEH BESAR

KAIN LAP

Bahan-bahan yang digunakan untuk pembuatan kertas daur ulang :

1. KERTAS BEKAS

Setiap jenis kertas dipilah-pilahberdasarkan jenisnya masing-masing, kertas Koran, kertas HVS, karton hingga kertas warna warni.

2. PEWARNA ALAM

Kunyit, jika diparut dan diperas sarinya akan menghasilkan warna kuning
Kulit bawang, jika direbus akan menghasilkan warna coklat
Pandan suji, jika ditumbuk dan diperas airnya dapat menghasilkan warna hijau pekat
Pandan wangi, jika direbus dan ditumbuk lalu diperas airnya dapat menghasilkan warna hijau muda, sekaligus aroma wangi
Kesumba (bixa), jika bijinya direndam dan diremas atau direbus dapat menghasilkan warna oranye
Serutan kayu nangka. Jika direbus akan menghasilkan warna kuning
Sirih, jika ditumbuk dan dicampur dengan kapur akan menghasilkan warna merah kecoklatan
Daun pisang kering, jika dibakar, abunya dapat menghasilkan warna coklat keabu-abuan
Rumput putri malu (Mimosa sp) jika direbus akan menghasilkan warna lembayung

3. SERAT PENGISI

Merupakan bahan-bahan yang dapat ditambahkan ke dalam campuran bubur kertas sehingga dihasilkan kertas yang lebih indah dan bertekstur. Dapat berupa bunga-bungaan ataupun serat tumbuhan lainnya seperti serat daun pandan wangi, serat batang pisang.

Cara Pembuatan Kertas Daur Ulang

1. Kertas bekas yang telah disobek-sobek sebesar perangko, direndam minimal 12 jam agar serat-seratnya menjadi lunak diresapi air. Perendaman dapat pula dibantu dengan perebusan untuk mempercepat proses peresapan air.

2. Kertas yang telah lemas direndam air / direbus, dihancurkan dengan blender.

Dengan perbandingan 1 ; 4 (4 bagian air untuk 1 bagian kertas). Lama pemblenderan tidak lebih dari 1 menit, sebaiknya dilakukan 2 kali pemblenderan dengan interval 30 detik saja.

3. Bubur kertas yang diperoleh dari pemblenderan dikumpulkan dalam satu wadah. Selanjutnya dapat dilakukan pencucian untuk mengurangi kadar asamnya dengan cara menyaring bubur kertas pada kain yang agak lebar dan meletakkannya di atas ember berisi air. Dengan demikian bubur kertas dapat dicuci sekaligus memisahkan potongan-potongan kertas yang mungkin belum hancur akibat pemblenderan.

4. Selanjutnya bubur kertas siap untuk diolah, dapat dicetak langsung maupun dilakukan pencampuran warna dan serat.

Masukan bubur kertas yang hanya bercampur dengan warna saja, atau bercampur dengan serat saja, atau bercampur dengan pewarna dan serat maupun bubur kertas tanpa campuran, kedalam ember kotak tempat cetakan. Perbandingan antara jumlah air dan bubur kertas tetap 4 : 1 (4 bagian air untuk 1 bagian bubur kertas). Aduk-aduk hingga campuran air dan bubur kertas merata.

5. Masukkan bingkai cetakan, dengan posisi bingkai cetak yang memakai kain kassa berada dibawah dan bingkai kosong dibagian atas sisi kain kassa. Masukkan hingga kedasar ember cetak, dengan hati-hati. Atur posisi bingkai cetak agar datar dan sejajar permukaan air. Kemudian angkat bingkai tersebut dengan hati-hati dalam posisi datar. Bubur kertas akan tercetak dipermukaan bingkai dengan bentuk seperti selembar kertas yang basah. Angkat bingkai penutup dengan cepat, jangan sampai airnya memerciki lembaran kertas yang masih basah tadi. Kemudian ditiriskan dalam posisi miring sekitar 30 derajat hingga airnya tinggal sedikit. Selanjutnya kertas basah tersebut siap untuk ditransfer ke atas permukaan alas cetak untuk dikeringkan.

6. Bingkai cetak dibalik, sehingga kertas basah menghadap ke alas cetak. Letakkan bingkai cetak dengan kertas basah tersebut pada alas cetak dengan hati-hati. Pada bagian atas bingkai cetak atau sisi sebaliknya dari kertas basah dapat dilakukan pengeringan dengan menggunakan spon. Selain untuk mempercepat pengeringan juga untuk mempermudah proses pemindahan kertas. Jika sudah cukup kering dan bingkai cetak sudah dapat diangkat dari alas cetak, lakukan dengan hati-hati agar kertas tersebut tidak cacat.

7. Kertas yang telah dipindahkan ke alas cetak tinggal menunggu kering saja, tetapi sebaiknya tidak dijemur dibawah matahari langsung. Dapat juga diselingi dengan pengepresan sewaktu kertas belum kering, dengan cara lapisi setiap lembar kertas dengan kain dan tumpuk sampai beberapa lapis kemudian diletakkan diantara papan pengepresan, lakukan selama kira-kira 10 menit. Jika kertas sudah kering, pengepresan dilakukan selama 1 jam.

Pencampuran Warna

Bubur kertas yang telah siap diolah, dapat dicampurkan dengan bahan pewarna alam yan telah kita persiapkan sebelumnya. Caranya adalah dengan mencampurkan langsung dan diaduk hingga merata. Selanjutnya dapat dilakukan perebusan jika ingin pencampuran warna yang lebih kuat.
Sisa pewarna alam dapat pula dicampurkan ke dalam air diember pencetakan agar tetapmembantu menimbulkan warna yang diinginkan.
Bubur kertas berwarna pun telah siap untuk diolah lebih lanjut, baik untuk dicetak, maupun dicampur dengan serat pengisi lainnya.

Pencampuran Serat
a. Gedebok Pisang,

Gedebok/batang pisang yang sudah selesai berbuah cincang seperti dadu dengan panjang sekitar 2 cm, jemur sekitar 2 jam untuk menghilangkan getah.
Kemudian ditumbuk dengan alu & lumping sehingga agak lunak.
Selanjutnya direbus selama 1 jam untuk melunakan seratnya. Kemudian tiriskan.
Setelah itu ditumbuk kembali hingga lebih halus. Saring dengan kain untuk dicuci dengan air, agar tinggal serat yang tersisa.
Serat yang tersisa dapat langsung dicampur dengan bubur kertas,atau jika dirasa kurang halus, dapat pula dibantu dengan pemblenderan.
Selanjutnya dicampurkan sedikit demi sedikit ke dalam bubur kertas, sambil diaduk terus menerus hingga rata.

b. Kulit Bawang

Rebus kulit bawang yang sudah digunting-gunting kecil dengan air hingga mendidih, sisihkan dan air rebusan jangan dibuang.
Hancurkan kulit bawang yang telah direbus dengan menggunakan blender selama 5 – 10 detik.
Campurkan secara perlahan kulit bawang yang telah dihancurkan kedalam wadah bubur kertas sambil terus diaduk-aduk hingga merata, jika air rebusan agak kotordapat dilakukan penyaringan terlebih dahulu.

c. Pandan Wangi

Rebus potongan pandan wangi (2 cm) selama kira-kira 1 jam, tiriskan.
Campurkan air rebusan dengan bubur kertas secepatnya, aduk-aduk hingga rata

courtesy:http://maknyaabel.multiply.com

Rain Drops

2008-11-19T11:12:00.000+07:00

1. Open any image that you want to add rain drops too. In order to make this look more realisitc, I'm going to use the following image of a green leaf.

2. Create a new layer named Drop1 and select the Elliptical Marquee Tool and make a selection which looks like a drop on the leaf.

3. Next set press D on your keyboard to set the foreground color to black and the background color to white, or you can do this manually. After reseting these colors, select the Gradient Tool from the Tools Palette. In the tool options bar at the top of the screen, make sure that the first button, linear gradient is selected and that the foreground to background gradient is selected.

Now that the proper Gradient Tool settings have been selected, drag the mouse from the left side of the selected oval to the right.

4. With the Drop 1 layer selected, change this layer's blend mode to Overlay in the Layers Palette.

5. Next right-click on the Drop 1 layer and select Blending Options. Apply the following Drop Shadow settings: Opacity 50, Angle 158, Distance 7, Spread 0, and Size 5.

6. Apply the following Inner Shadow settings: Opacity 75, Angle 158, Distance 5, Spread 0, and Size 5.

7. For the Glow Effect, create a new layer named Glow and set the foreground color to white. Then select the Brush Tool and make a small dot in the drop. Here is the final effect:

Note: For making the curved drops select the Drop 1 layer then go to Filter > Liquify and make appropriate shape and click OK.

courtesy : http://www.depiction.net

Menentukan Harga Sebuah Karya Desain

2008-11-12T16:17:00.000+07:00

Dalam dunia desain (khususnya dunia webdesign) banyak sekali cara menentukan harga sebuah desain yang diterapkan oleh perusahaan jasa desain ataupun freelance desainer. Ada yang memberikan harga per-paket, ada yang berdasarkan jumlah halaman, ada yang menentukan flat-price, ada pula yang menetukan berdasarkan rate per-jam atau per-hari.

Bagaimana sebuah kerja kreativitas dihargai? Sedemikian sulit-kah menentukan harga sebuah desain? Argumen apakah yang bisa diberikan seorang desainer dalam menentukan harga sebuah desain? Ini adalah masalah klasik dalam dunia desain, khususnya bagi para freelance desainer.

Berdasarkan obrolan dengan sesama freelance desainer dan juga dari pengalaman, saya mencoba merumuskan bagaimana memberi harga pada sebuah hasil karya kreatif. Sebenarnya ini bukan rumus mutlak. Setiap desainer pasti punya cara sendiri-sendiri untuk menentukan harga sebuah pekerjaan desain. Tapi paling tidak ini merupakan satu cara menentukan harga desain yang kira2 mungkin bisa diterapkan dan mungkin “cukup fair”.

Caranya adalah dengan memakai formula:

HP = HT – (d x HT)

dimana: HT = [ R x W ] + K + M

HP = Harga penawaran sebuah desain atau project desain
HT = Harga total pekerjaan desain
R = Rate per-hari atau per-jam dari seorang desainer dimana 1 hari = 8 jam kerja
W = Estimasi waktu lamanya pengerjaan desain/proyek
K = Harga konsep desain
M = Harga material desain.
d = prosentase potongan harga (discount) yang diberikan

Mengapa saya bilang “cukup fair”? Ini disebabkan karena dengan formula ini seorang desainer dituntut untuk bisa memberikan estimasi yang masuk akal dan cukup objektif akan hal2 seperti: seberapa objektif seorang desainer menilai skill desain dan pengalamannya, berapa lama sebuah pekerjaan bisa diselesaikan, berapa harga sebuah konsep desain atau perlu/tidaknya memberikan potongan harga kepada klien, dsb. Juga dikatakan “cukup fair” karena dengan menerapkan perhitungan ini, kedua belah pihak (desainer dan klien) diharapkan bisa melihat sisi objektif dari sebuah pekerjaan desain. Calon klien tidak merasa dibohongi dan di sisi lain desainer juga tidak merasa bekerja rodi.

Menentukan Variabel2 Formula.

1. Rate ®
Rate adalah harga perhari atau perjam yang ditentukan pada kemampuan seorang desainer dalam mengerjakan pekerjaan2 desain. Besarnya bergantung pada skill yang dikuasai, pemahaman konsep desain, pengalaman, portfolio, kredibilitas klien yang pernah ditangani, dsb. Singkatnya R bergantung pada pengalaman dan jam terbang seorang desainer.

Sebagai contoh seorang desainer yang menguasai seabrek software desain mulai dari Photoshop sampai program 3D tercanggih, memiliki pemahaman konsep desain yang dibuktikan dengan portfolio yang ditunjukkan, pernah bekerja di perusahaan desain terkemuka, berpengalaman menangani klien2 “wah” seperti Nokia, BMW, dsb, bisa dikategorikan sebagai highly priced desainer dengan rate misalnya Rp. 2.000.000/hari. Sementara seorang lulusan sekolah desain yang baru memiliki 2-3 portfolio dari perusahaan2 kecil bisa dikategorikan sebagai pemula dengan rate sekitar Rp. 100.000/hari. Disini, seorang desainer dituntut untuk mampu mengestimasi “nilai jual” dirinya berdasarkan faktor2 tersebut.

R bisa dihitung perhari ataupun perjam. Mengapa? Beberapa desainer menentukan rate/hari dengan alasan kemudahan perhitungan. Desainer lain menerapkan rate/jam dengan alasan agar lebih gampang menghitung waktu untuk revisi. Sebenarnya ini sama saja. Seperti disebutkan di atas, 1 hari = 8 jam. Sekarang kembali kepada sang desainer untuk menghitung lamanya pengerjaan sebuah proyek desain dalam hitungan hari (agar lebih sederhana) atau dalam hitungan jam agar lebih detail.

Tetapi ada satu hal lain yang harus dipertimbangkan. Ada kalanya rate/jam sangat sulit diterima oleh klien di Indonesia. Di negara2 maju dimana pekerjaan desain sudah dihargai dengan baik, rate/jam mungkin bisa diterapkan dan diterima oleh calon klien. Ini karena profesi desainer sudah dianggap sejajarkan dengan pekerjaan jasa profesional lain seperti pengacara, dokter, dsb. Akan tetapi bila kita berbicara dalam konteks lokal, berdasarkan pengalaman saya, rate/jam sangat sulit untuk diterima oleh umumnya klien di Indonesia. Tapi bila seorang desainer merasa confident untuk menerapkan rate/jam untuk klien di Indonesia, well.. why not?

2. Estimasi Lamanya Pengerjaan (W)
Estimasi lamanya waktu pengerjaan adalah jumlah waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk menyelesaikan sebuah desain/proyek desain. Berkaitan dengan rate ®, waktu bisa dihitung dalam satuan hari ataupun jam. Sebagai gambaran, jumlah waktu pengerjaan 1 (satu) halaman HTML tanpa programming tentu akan berbeda dengan jumlah waktu pengerjaan 1 (satu) halaman website full-flash.

Dalam menentukan jumlah hari ini desainer dituntut untuk reasonable dalam arti tidak mengada-ada dan masuk diakal. Sebagai contoh mengerjakan sebuah halaman HTML simpel tentu tidak akan memakan waktu sampai 7 hari (56 jam), bukan? Bila desainer menetapkan variabel Rate ® dalam satuan hari, variabel H tidak harus bulat, ia bisa bernilai 0.5 (setengah hari = 4 jam) hari atau 0.25 (seperempat hari = 2 jam).

3. Harga Konsep Desain (K)
Yang agak rumit mungkin menentukan harga konsep desain. Akan tetapi kita bisa mengira2 seberapa original dan brilyan-nya sebuah konsep desain. Disinilah seorang desainer dituntut untuk bisa menguraikan konsep desain yang ia tawarkan. Bukan hanya terbatas pada ide dan tampilan visual semata, tapi juga mencakup hal2 lain seperti ‘look and feel’, tata letak (lay-out) yang baik, flow navigasi dan penempatan menu sebuah website, sitemap, pemilihan tagline, dsb.

Seorang teman desainer mengatakan bahwa ia juga menerapkan semacam perhitungan untuk menentukan harga K. Dalam kasus ini, harga K ditentukan dari berapa lama ia melakukan eksplorasi untuk mendapatkan ide dan menguraikannya menjadi sebuah konsep desain. Dengan kata lain, K=Rk x Wk (rate desainer dikalikan jumlah waktu eksplorasi). Rumit? Mungkin terlihat rumit, tapi sekali lagi, di negara2 maju (kebetulan teman saya tersebut pernah bekerja di luar negeri dan baru kembali ke Indonesia), ini merupakan hal yang wajar dan bisa diterima oleh klien.

4. Prosentase Potongan Harga (d)
Mungkin terkesan aneh bila diterapkan potongan harga untuk sebuah desain/proyek desain. Akan tetapi hal ini perlu dipertimbangkan bila seorang desainer menghadapi kasus dimana calon klien merupakan sebuah perusahaan besar dan menurut perkiraan memungkinkan terbentuknya long term relationship dan kontinuitas proyek. Dengan menerapkan discount, desainer bisa memberi alasan “proyek perkenalan” dimana sebagai awal long term relationship, sebuah desain yang bagus diberi harga yang relatif murah. Bila memang tidak mau, desainer bisa memberi harga 0 (nol) untuk variabel ini.

5. Harga Material Desain (M)
Harga material desain adalah total harga pengadaan material untuk pekerjaan desain yang mencakup harga session fotografi, pembelian stock image, pembelian lisensi additional software, fee copywriting. dan lain2

Sekarang mari kita lihat variabel mana yang nilainya bersifat fleksibel dan variabel mana yang bernilai tetap. Harga W yang pasti nilainya bersifat fleksibel karena bergantung dari skala proyek desain yang dikerjakan. Harga M juga bersifat fleksibel karena bergantung dari harga pihak ketiga yang menyediakan material desain (copywriter, fotografer, harga stock image, dsb). Harga d juga bersifat fleksibel seperti telah diuraikan di atas.

Harga konsep (K) pun bersifat fleksibel. Perbedaan ada pada cara menentukan harga tersebut. Seperti telah diuraikan di atas, ada beberapa desainer yang menetapkan nilai K dengan rumus K=Rk x Wk. Tapi ada juga desainer yang menetapkan nilai K tanpa menguraikannya seperti itu. K adalah sebuah nilai yang mencakup seluruh hal mulai dari eksplorasi, ide, konsep, dsb. Semata-mata karena pertimbangan kemudahan. Sebenarnya keduanya sama saja, itu hanyalah cara desainer untuk memberikan argumen yang tepat untuk harga sebuah kreativitas.

Bagaimana dengan variabel R?

Ada dua fenomena menarik. Beberapa freelance desainer (dan juga umumnya agensi desain) mematok harga R tetap (fixed) dengan alasan bahwa harga tersebut adalah standar profesionalisme mereka. Desainer dengan harga R tinggi harus bisa bekerja dalam waktu yang lebih singkat dibandingkan desainer dengan harga R yang lebih rendah untuk sebuah hasil yang kualitasnya sama. Artinya klien yang menyewa desainer dengan R tinggi akan diuntungkan dengan waktu pengerjaan (W) yang lebih singkat/cepat bila dibandingkan dengan mempekerjakan desainer dengan harga R yang lebih rendah.

Di sisi lain ada desainer yang lebih fleksibel dengan harga R yaitu dengan menentukan nilai R sesuai dengan kredibilitas ataupun skala perusahaan klien. Sebagai ilustrasi, desainer seperti ini memberikan nilai R yang tinggi kepada sebuah perusahaan multi-nasional yang memiliki aset milyaran dan memberi rate yang lebih rendah kepada perusahaan kecil berbudget rendah, misalnya.

Contoh berikut mungkin bisa lebih memperjelas:

Seorang desainer level menengah memberikan rate perhari sebesar Rp. 700.000/hari sesuai dengan skill, portfolio, pemahaman konsep dan pengalamannya kepada firma-hukum mid-size untuk mengerjakan website company profile. Struktur website tersebut adalah sebagai berikut:
http://home.graffiti.net/kamdih/sitemap.jpg
Struktur tersebut akan diterapkan dalam halaman2 berbasis HTML dengan tambahan features animasi flash di frontpage-nya dan aplikasi backoffice untuk news update. Estimasi pengerjaannya adalah 10 hari. Tampilan visual, look and feel serta alur navigasi dari website yang akan dibuat sangat sesuai dengan corporate image dari firma-hukum tersebut yang dibuktikan dengan mock-up yang telah dibuat. Untuk itu si desainer memberikan harga Rp. 3.000.000. Stok foto dan text untuk website disediakan oleh client, sehingga harga material = 0 (nol). Desainer tersebut memutuskan memberikan discount sebesar 10% dari harga total dengan pertimbangan akan terjalin long term relationship dimana firma hukum tersebut nantinya mungkin juga akan membuat aplikasi intranet, dsb.

Dalam kasus ini, harga penawaran adalah sebesar:

HT= (700.000 x 10) + 3.000.000 + 0 = 10.000.000

HP= 10.000.000 – (10% x 10.000.000) = 9.000.000

Jadi, harga penawaran yang diajukan adalah sebesar Rp. 9.000.000. Bila ternyata calon klien melakukan bargaining, desainer bisa bertahan dengan memberikan argumen bahwa secara konsep, desain tersebut sangat cocok dengan corporate image perusahaan atau effort yang dikeluarkan untuk pengerjaan proyek memang cukup besar.

Kemungkinan besar, calon klien akan bersikeras melakukan bargaining terhadap harga2 variabel2 tersebut. Disini, desainer bisa memperkecil harga penawaran dengan menurunkan harga rate per-hari menjadi Rp. 650.000 misalnya, sehingga manjadi:

HT= (650.000 x 10) + 3.000.000 + 0 = 9.500.000

HP= 9.500.000 – (10% x 9.500.000) = 8.550.000

atau memperbesar prosentase discount menjadi 15%:

HT= (700.000 x 10) + 3.000.000 + 0 = 10.000.000

HP= 10.000.000 – (15% x 10.000.000) = 8.500.000

Dalam contoh tersebut bisa dilihat bahwa sang desainer melakukan bargaining dengan menerapkan harga R yang fleksibel dengan tidak mengurangi waktu pengerjaan (W) berdasarkan pertimbangan2 tertentu misalnya load pekerjaan yang tinggi, dsb. Sementara desainer yang menetapkan fix rate R, bargaining mungkin bisa dilakukan dengan memberikan discount atau mengurangi waktu kerja (W)

Formula tersebut saya rasa cukup general dan bisa dipakai untuk menentukan harga pekerjaan desain lainnya dan tidak terbatas hanya pekerjaan webdesign. Ia bisa juga diterapkan untuk pekerjaan desain grafis
Secara teknis pengerjaan poster tersebut mungkin bisa dikategorikan sebagai mudah dan dapat diselesaikan dalam 1 hari saja. Akan tetapi dengan klien sekelas Warnerbros, desainer bisa menetapkan rate per-hari ® yang cukup tinggi. Ditambah lagi dengan konsep desain yang original dan brilyan yang dilengkapi dengan tagline “Everything That Has a Beginning Has an End” mungkin variabel K bisa dihargai jutaan dollar.

Satu hal lagi, contoh diatas adalah dalam kasus programming atau actionscripting dilakukan oleh satu orang desainer yang sama. Namun formula ini juga bisa diterapkan untuk pekerjaan dimana programming atau flash actionscripting dilakukan oleh orang2 yang berbeda. Jadi bila sebuah desain website misalnya menyangkut juga pembuatan basis-data, programming dan actionscripting, harga penawaran adalah akumulasi dari harga yang diajukan tiap2 team member yang terlibat di dalam pekerjaan tersebut.

Sekali lagi, cara di atas bukanlah sebuah hal mutlak. Ini hanyalah salah satu cara dan penerapannya juga kembali kepada desainer yang bersangkutan. Satu hal yang pasti, formula ini juga tidak akan menjamin diperolehnya sebuah pekerjaan/proyek desain? Harus dibedakan disini antara menentukan harga desain dengan mendapatkan proyek desain. Deal sebuah pekerjaan desain bergantung dari banyak faktor lain seperti relasi, jenis klien, budget, kualitas desain, dsb. Tidak ada jaminan bahwa dengan menerapkan formula ini sebuah proyek desain pasti akan diperoleh. Akan tetapi, minimal seorang desainer memiliki dasar untuk menentukan harga sebuah desain dan tidak hanya bisa bergumam sambil berkeringat dingin bila sang klien mempertanyakan dasar penentuan harga desain yang ia tawarkan. (Harry JH)

Komunitas Kolektor Rokok

2008-11-11T10:44:00.000+07:00

Penulusuran dan perjalanan keinginan yang tidak terbendung dimana, pada suatu titik kita harus menentukan arah mana yang akan kita tempuh, kiri kanan, atas bawah, hutan, kota, laut, sungai. Tapi ada kalanya kita harus mengambil semua arah pada saat semua arah sudah kita lalui. Kesempatan untuk menentukan arah itu ada pada diri kita. Sama halnya dengan penulusuran saya ketika awal tahun 2004, pada saat itu saya ingin mencari merk-merk rokok yang tidak lazim di pasaran atau jarang di temui di pasaran yang biasanya rokok tersebut beredar di pedesaan atau perkampungan tapi pernah juga saya menemukan rokok yang beredar di perkotaan. Padahal saya bukan termasuk type perokok tapi saya cukup senang dengan hoby ini. Ternyata hoby ini berlanjut hingga saat ini, walaupun koleksi rokok saya hanya sedikit tapi cukup menyenangkan, karena dengan merk-merk tersebut dapat memeberikan inspirasi serta kelucuan dan rasa humor yang OK !

Tapi untuk menemukan rokok-rokok tersebut kadang banyak menimbulkan banyak cerita, dan rokok-rokok yang saya punya tidak semuanya hasil hunting sendiri ada juga beberapa teman-teman yang membawakannya, ketika mereka melakukan perjalanan khususnya ke wilayah jawa tengah dan jawa timur, ada juga yang memberikan kemasannya saja karena isi dari rokok tersebut sudah di hisap teman.
Sampai saat ini masih sibuk lirik kiri kanan jalan yang ada warung, sejenak terhenti ketika ada beberapa merk yang belum pernah saya jumpai. Dengan hasil hunting sudah terkumpul beberapa merk rokok tapi saya bingung untuk menempatkan dimana koleksi saya, untuk sementara ini mereka saya tempatkan pada kardus bekas sepatu istri saya. Cukup aman sementara waktu di simpan dalam kardus tersebut tapi saya harus tetap menjaga kondisi mereka dengan memberikannya Cilika Gel agar mereka tetap terjaga kemasannya, dan kondisi tembakaunya.

Pada pertengahan tahun 2008 berdiri berdiri mailinglist komunitas kolektor rokok kolektor-rokok@yahoogroups.com. Awalnya saya ikut nimbrung ngomongin tentang merk-merk rokok blog www.bandarbarang.wordpress.com, ternyata banyak juga yang punya hoby seperti saya, dan pada suatu sore dapat SMS kalo ga salah dari Mas Dedy yang punya ide untuk membentuk komunitas kolektor rokok. Dan bergabunglah saya dengan komunitas kolektor rokok tersebut, disitu kita banyak tukar menukar informasi tentang merk-merk rokok ada juga yang barteran rokok karena diantara kolektor ada yang mempunyai beberapa double. Pada tgl 19 Oktober 2008 milist mengadakan Halal Bihalal (KOPDAR) dan pendeklarasian Komunitas Kolektor Rokok yang bertempat di rumahnya Mas Medi di bilangan Cireundeu Ciputat Tangerang, tapi sayang saya tidak bisa hadir karena ada sesuatu hal putra saya sakit, jadi saya harus tinggal diam di rumah…… tapi saya cukup gembira dengan hasil yang di bentuk oleh rekan-rekan di milist.

Festival Kretek , 15 Maret 2009 @ O LaLa Cafe Bintao

Minal Aidin Walfaidzin

2008-09-26T15:20:00.001+07:00

Getting a Handle on the Creative Process for Graphic Designers

2008-08-22T09:13:00.000+07:00

The Graphic Design industry is very competitive, and trust me, it can certainly get stressful and frustrating at times. However, it doesn’t always have to be that way. Here, I have broken down my design process. This is how I create my design layouts from start to finish. Basically, with some focus, structure, and a little bit of talent, creating rewarding and professional design work can be produced more efficiently and with less stress.

Research

The very first thing on my long list is to research and learn as much about my client(s) as possible. The more I know, the easier the project will be. For instance, I can only imagine the embarrassment of having a client question why images of plastic bottles were used when they only sell organic material. So to avoid such mistakes, I analyze my customers to ensure accuracy, and start off on the right foot to avoid any problems or issues later on.

Brainstorming

I find that striving to be as unique and innovative as possible while still following the current trends, ensures a fresh and creative way of thinking. I often look through magazines, sketch, browse the internet, and listen to music to get creative inspiration. Occasionally, I’ll look for previously designed materials a client has created, just to see where their graphic design and/or branding stands. Sometimes this helps spark a new idea or concept. Making thumbnails and rough sketches helps me work through my ideas. I also tend to ask friends and colleagues about what they think to me get a different perspective on the design. I’m most creative when I’m relaxed, so I make sure that I am comfortable, otherwise I find it very hard to keep focused. If I’m stuck on an idea then I go for a walk to clear my head because forcing an idea won’t result in a good design. This is just my method, everyone has their own way of getting in to that “creative zone”.

The Elements

For me structure is important, I use a few elements as guidelines that help me to balance the level of unity within a composition. I basically break down design into three categories typography, negative space and color.

Typography

Typography is a very substantial and fundamental part of any design. After I’ve come up with a good concept or two, i‘lI start looking for an appropriate typeface, one that will define the mood and act sort of like an anchor that I can work with. Usually I’ll spend a good deal of time searching for something tasteful and fitting. The following two fonts sites - www.dafont.com and www.fontfreak.com - are two pretty good font resources with lots of variety. Once I have picked fonts that I like, I’ll play with it for a while, resize it, kern it, rotate it etc. and just have some fun with it. To keep the piece more cohesive and easier to read, I prefer to keep the number of typefaces in a design to a minimum to maintain consistency.

Negative Space

It took me a while to realize that less is really more and that there are big advantages of using more open space in any design. It helps with contrast and clarity and the overall message of the design comes through clearer. If there is too much going on, and my design starts to get cluttered, then I’ll take a step back and really look at how the whole piece looks as a whole. If there’s something that looks awkward or doesn’t need to be in the design, then I remove it. I think paying attention to the negative space throughout the design process inevitably points me in the right direction and saves time with revisions or alterations later on.

Colors

I like to have fun playing with different color combinations. There are so many color schemes that sometimes I’ll spend hours if not days trying to decide on one that will present the look and feeling I want to portray. I always thought that the psychological effect that colors present was fascinating. For example, when you see red, food may come to mind. While seeing the color blue, the feeling of tranquility and relaxation is felt by the viewer. I always found the unique meanings of color pretty handy for design. Using the right colors will make all the difference. I’ll usually try and pick tones rather than straight colors because it’s less generic. I am also a big fan of plain black and white, because the combination and contrast is so strong. A good site I check frequently is www.colourlovers.com, which is a site where users post their favorite color combinations. Colourlovers.com also does a great job explaining what color combinations are good or bad and why.

As a closing note, I’d like to say that graphic design really is a driven industry led by people who truly are proud and passionate about it. I have a hard time separating myself from my designs, and when an idea gets shot down I’d be lying if I said it didn’t bother me a little. So, what do I do? I push myself harder, because It really does reflect in the design. I’d say some of my best work came from ideas that were the result of constructive criticism.

www.allgraphicdesign.com
www.damiennorthmore.com

How To Design A Logo

2008-08-07T14:30:00.000+07:00

Want to know how to design a logo like a professional and have all the resources you need in just one post? Then this is the post for you… Learn professional logo design in just 5 steps! This article was posted on David Airey’s blog for a guest post on 5 Vital Logo Design Tips.

1. Learn What A Logo Is & What It Represents
Before you design a logo, you must understand what a logo is, what it represents and what it is supposed to do. A logo is not just a mark - a logo reflects a business’s commercial brand via the use of shape, fonts, colour, and / or images.

A logo is for inspiring trust, recognition and admiration for a company or product and it is our job as designers to create a logo that will do its job. One must know what a logo is before continuing. For further Reading on what is a logo check out Wikipedia’s Definition or CreativeBits’s discussion on what is a logo?

2. Know The Rules & Principles Of Logo Design

Now that you know what a logo is supposed to do, and what it should represent you now must learn about what makes a great logo aka; the basic rules and principles of logo design.
As David quotes…

A logo must be describable
A logo must be memorable
A logo must be effective without colour
A logo must be scalable i.e. effective when just an inch in size

For Further reading on the rules and principles of great logo design I highly recommend to read the logo design tips from Logo Factory before continuing.

3. Learn Off Other’s Successes & Mistakes

Successful Logos
Now you know what the rules of logo design are, you can distinguish the difference between a good and a bad logo… By knowing what other logos have succeeded and why they have succeeded gives a great insight into what makes a good logo. For example, lets look at the classic Nike Swoosh. This logo was created by Caroline Davidson in 1971 for only $35 yet it still a strong, memorable logo, effective without colour and easily scalable. It is simple, fluid and fast and represents the wing in the famous statue of the Greek Goddess of victory, Nike - something perfect for a sporting apparel business. Nike is just one of many great logos, think about other famous brands that you know about and check out their logos - what makes them successful? For more quality, lesser known logos I recommend checking out LogoPond or going to your local book store or library and looking at a logo book.

The Not So Successful Logos
We can also learn off logos that have not been as successful such as the ones in the above picture. Some more very bad logos can be seen in the post ‘Is Your Design Phallic? As seen in that post, some logos can depict things that may have not always be noticeable to the designer (as in the middle logo above) or they could just be plain bad design, as in the logo to the right.

4.Establish Your Own Logo Design Process

Now that we know what a logo is, and what the principles and rules of logo design are and what makes a successful logo we can now finally begin the design process. This it hardest part of the 5 steps and is its own topic in itself - Each persons logo design process is different and experience usually is the key factor in creating your own logo design process but for an example of a well established logo design process check out David Airey’s.

In short, a logo design process usually consists of

The Design Brief
Research & Brainstorming
Sketching
Prototyping & Conceptualising (See Step 5)
Send To Client For Review
Revise & Add Finishing Touches
Supply Files To Client and Give Customer Service

If you ever get stuck before or during your design process check out this great article on How To Boost Your Creativity.

5. Learn The Software & Complete The Logo
After you have got your design process sorted out, it is usually a good time to begin mastering your software (Here is a short tutorial for beginners). But before I get to that, I just want to point out that Step 4 and Step 5 overlap - as it is a catch 22 situation… You can’t design a logo by just hopping straight onto the computer nor can you design a logo without knowing your software (such as Adobe Illustrator). Anyway, putting this aside, after you have got your initial ideas and sketches from brainstorming you can then usually jump onto the computer to start digitising your logo. After you have got a great concept(s) digitised you can send it to your client, get revisions, and eventually complete the logo and thus, you have successfully created a professional logo. Do you have any other tips or suggestions on how to create a professional logo? (http://justcreativedesign.com)

Urban Art

2008-07-28T08:43:00.001+07:00

Urban art adalah seni yang mencirikan perkembangan kota, dimana perkembangan itu kemudian melahirkan sistem di masyarakat yang secara struktur dan kultur berbeda dengan struktur dan kultur masyarakat pedesaan. Saat ini seni bukan lagi sekedar berlatar belakang tradisi tapi justru lebih merespon tradisi-tradisi baru terutama di daerah perkotaan yang secara demografis dihuni oleh anggota masyarakat yang sangat heterogen.

Urban art lahir karena adanya kerinduan untuk merespon kreativitas masyarakat yang tinggal di daerah perkotaan dengan segala problematikanya. Maka munculah usaha dari sekelompok orang untuk memamerkan dan mendatangkan seni ditengah-tengah masyarakat dengan cara melakukan kebebasan berekspresi di ruang publik. Ekspresi yang ditampilkan adalah ekspresi yang mencoba memotret permasalahan-permasalahan yang kerap terjadi dan mendominasi masyarakat urban mencakup masalah sosial, ekonomi, politik dan budaya. Melalui media seni dan dilatarbelakangi oleh pertumbuhan dan kapitalisasi kota itu sendiri. Zaman sekarang seni bukan lagi sebuah representasi yang ditampilakan digaleri saja, tapi sebuah media ekspresi yang bertarung di fasilitas publik dengan media lainnya seperti iklan di TV, billboard iklan, poster promosi, baligo dan lain-lain. Semua media ekspresi tersebut mendominasi dihampir setiap fasilitas publik.

Urban art berhasil memangkas hubungan yang berjarak antara publik sebagai apresiator dengan sebuah karya seni. Menggantikan fungsi seni yang tadinya agung, klasik, murni, tinggi serta tradisional. Seni diposisikan sebagai sesuatu yang konservatif dan sarat dengan nilai pengagungan. Urban art berhasil meruntuhkan nilai-nilai tersebut dengan cara menghadirkannya ke tengah publik melalui media-media yang erat dengan keseharian masyarakat kota. Bila menarik elemen lokal dalam urban art, lukisan di bak truk dan becak adalah contoh urban art.

Tujuan urban art lebih berakar pada perbedaan sikap politik, anti kemapanan, vandalisme dan perlawanan terhadap sistem dominan dimasyarakat. Bentuk konkret urban art bisa bermacam-macam sepanjang karya seni itu mengusung spirit dinamika urban. Di kota Bandung kita bisa melihat semua ekspresi semangat urban itu dalam berbagai bentuk. Seperti komunitas musik punk yang kerap menggelar street gigs di bawah jembatan layang Pasupati, seniman tradisi yang rutin menggelar kesenian pencak silat di taman Cikapayang atau juga lukisan-lukisan mural ditiang-tiang jembatan layang Pasupati.

Pada akhirnya urban art berhasil dikomodifikasi oleh komunitasnya sendiri. Bentuk-bentuk kesenian terutama seni mural dan grafiti sekarang terutama di kota Bandung lambat laun berhasil menjadi sesuatu yang mempunyai nilai ekonomis. Banyak para seniman mural dan grafiti yang mengekspresikan ide mereka dengan para pemilik distro atau clothing di Bandung. Para pemilik distro ini memfasilitasi para seniman tersebut dengan menyediakan space/lahan untuk berekspresi. Selain memberikan nilai estetika pada toko, mereka juga ikut memberikan penyaluran terhadap keinginan seniman tersebut untuk berkarya.(AH)

dikutip dari: (http://bandungcreativecityblog.wordpress.com)

How to Find your First Graphic Design Job!

2008-07-15T10:58:00.000+07:00

You’re pumped! You‘re ready! All the classes with the best instructors have prepared you to succeed in the world of graphic design. But how do you go about landing your first REAL graphic design job? The very first thing to do is to create an effective resumé. Though there have been many discussions as to whether or not to show your creativity, I prefer to let my credentials to the talking. However it is a personal choice. If you decide to be a little more flamboyant, do so with a certain amount of professionalism.

To create a prize winning resumé, you will need to provide a job specific cover letter. An effective cover letter is like making a first impression. It may be the only contact you have with a potential employer, so make it count! You will need to be specific, including the position you are inquiring about and why you are interested in becoming associated with this company. Do your homework. If you don’t know much about the company, find out more about it before jumping into the fire. Your cover letter will convey this research and will let them know you are serious indeed. You will need to include a summary of skills that relate to the position as well as any experience you may have acquired through internships, or live jobs done in a classroom setting. If you have never done a cover letter before, look at sample to familiarize yourself. I found a great one at About.com when I typed in “sample cover letters”.

Cover letters are usually one page and you really want to think about what you are saying to this employer on paper. I can not stress enough the importance of double checking your grammar, punctuation and spelling. Take the time to sketch out roughly what you want to say before committing it to file and printing the “SHOW” copy. This is no different than setting the stage to start a new graphic design project. If you don’t draw out your map you certainly will never get to where you’re going.

Now that you have grabbed the prospective employers attention with a perfectly written, well articulated cover letter, it’s time to get down to the nuts and bolts; your resumé. For graphic designers, this document is slightly different than the average resumé in that you will need to be aware and use industry terminology. I have put together a basic outline and term definitions where needed to help.

I. Contact information

Name (Use your proper name, no nicknames)

Address (Street, Town, State, Zip)

Phone (Area Code) XXX-XXXX

Email Address (If you don’t have one, go to AOL or Yahoo for a free one)

II. Objective

What do you plan to accomplish through working in this particular area of graphics?

III. Education

List the most current first. If you completed more than one type of schooling at a time, list the most prevalent to this position first. Here is a sample of how it might look:

2008 BA University of S. Carolina/Liberal Arts

2007 AA Huntsville Community College/Commercial Art

2006 AAS Des Moines Area Community College/Graphic Technologies

2005 Diploma Bucklin R-II High School/Art, Math, English

IV. Skills

Skills are what you are good at, like page layout or cost estimation. But an employer wants to know how much you know, so you might consider using the following terms to assess your skill levels.

Proficient-Well versed and knowing how to implement and use without direct supervision. Can you do the job without someone looking over your shoulder every five minutes? Or better yet, without you running to them every five minutes asking how to do something?

Skilled-You have a working knowledge of what you are required to do with minimal supervision on the finer points. This is where most graduating students are assessed. They know how to use the programs they just haven’t got the practical applications under their belt yet.

Familiar-Just what it says. You are familiar with a program or skill needed but lack practical training to produce results. I am familiar with variable data but I do not have the training to implement it. You do not want more than one of these on an effective resumé. It shows a lack of training in various areas if you have several. Focus on what you do know, not on what you don’t.

V. Graphics Related Experience

Again, list your most current experience first. When I was studying for my degree, I went out of my way to volunteer for live jobs that would come in as well as taking an active part in my student government and other related projects so that when I graduated, I had a fairly impressive number of accomplishments to draw on. This is an excellent area to list out internships, work study jobs and other related opportunities you’ve taken advantage that relate to the position you are applying for.

VI. References

Include a copy of any letters of recommendation that you have received in connection to work you have done. If this is not possible, list 3-5 names with contact information of past employers or instructors that are willing to give you a great reference. Remember to ask and never assume they will do this. It shows a lack of professionalism and may come back to bite you. Case in point, you are a great design student and your projects get straight A’s, but you only show up half the time. This is not good material for a reference. Always put your best foot forward.

Keep your resumé simple. Most employers don’t have time to read a novel. They tend to take a few minutes to assess your potential and go on to the next prospect. Keep your resumé to about 1 ½ -2 pages plus the cover letter. This is why your first impression is crucial! Keep it simple, keep it elegant, and keep it professional.

Now that you have created an award winning cover letter and an absolutely stellar resumé, where do you look to find a job? The answer is anywhere and everywhere and all points in between.

1) If you are getting ready to graduate, check out the college’s job placement office. Many times they can give you suggestions to improve your job seeking skills and have applications on file from area employers.

2) The local Job Service office is a great place to look as well. If you register for work and post a resumé online, you can be notified by email of jobs matching your skill set.

3) Local Graphics Associations. These are the potential employers all gathered in one room. Most students are offered an introductory price that is very affordable. This is not only a great tax deduction it is a wonderful resource. These people are happy to answer questions about the industry and help you with insider tips on how to do different things. And they get to know you and your talents. Spend the $10 for dinner and surround yourself with your peers. You will not go wrong by doing this!

4) Newspapers/Shopper Papers. Depending on the size of the city you live in, this can be fairly productive. Be careful though. Do not randomly send your personal information out unless you are totally comfortable with the person you have made contact with. Ask for the name of the company if it is not provided and check them out before you jump in.

5) The Internet. I love the Internet for job searching. I don’t have to spend my hard earned money on gas not to speak of the traffic and finding a place to park and all the other headaches that go with job hunting. However, make sure you are hunting in the area you want to end up. If you put out resumes three hundred miles from where you live, you are either going to have a long commute or you’re going to move. The Internet is a truly wonderful place to start your search, but nothing beats a face to face interview. If you decide to post your resumé on one of the job sites, stick with well established sites such as CareerBuilder.com, Job.com, and Monster.com.

6) Carry business cards with your name and contact information. Since we are in the business of creating visual graphics, show some of it off here. These come in handy when meeting new prospects and possible employers and will leave a small remembrance for later. Basic business card stock can be found at any Wal-Mart or office supply store for under $10. Print them on your regular printer at home. Or if you want to have them done check out the local print shops. You may be surprised at the amount of attention you get there. You might also consider asking for referrals from these shops if you plan to do freelance.

All of these ideas and suggestions work. I know because I’ve used them, sometimes frequently. The bottom line is to get your name out there. Make your presence known and look everywhere. Graphic design jobs can come up in the oddest places. I once got a job working for a waste management company that wanted to rework their corporate image. My trash guy had one of my business cards and gave it to his boss. As they say, the rest is history. They called, I got the job and they are still loyal customers after two years. Who would have guessed finding a job THERE? (By Lois Knight) www.allgraphicdesign.com

So, You Want to be a Graphic Designer… Now What?

2008-07-14T15:40:00.000+07:00

I recently received an email from a young man who stated that he “likes to draw” and wants to become a Graphic Designer, but wanted to know how to get started. At first I thought the obvious answer was “get a graphic design education,” but after more thought I realized it isn’t always that simple.

With today’s continually rising tuition costs and the cost of hardware and software that is so necessary in our industry, simply going out and “getting an education” isn’t always possible. Whether you’re right out of high school, a Mom looking for a career she can do from home, recently out of the Military or simply someone who feels they have a knack for design and is ready for a career change, consider that you have a few options on how to gain the skills you will need to pursue your dream job. But first, ask yourself some questions:

1. Why do you want to be a Graphic Designer?
The answer to this question is very important and can have direct impact on if you can make it in this highly competitive field.

If you wish to be a designer simply because you have a friend who makes a lot of money and you want to make lots of money too, then you should probably reconsider your options. The success of most designers comes with time, effort, skill and knowledge. Granted, there are some designers out there who are born with phenomenal skill and require little effort to do what they do best, but the majority of us work hard to keep up with the latest trends, maintain excellent customer service to our clients and continually stay educated on the latest hardware and software. There is a certain amount of skill required to becoming successful as a designer, and it’s no easy task. If you’re in it simply for the money, be prepared to make very little your first few years out of the gate, or nothing at all if you’re just no good at design.

If you want to be a designer because you feel you have some artistic abilities or your friends often compliment you on that great birthday invitation you put together for your sister, then you might have something going for you. It is definitely not a requirement that you posses the ability to draw, but it certainly helps. In my personal opinion, most artists (visual, musical or otherwise) have a natural eye for color, shape and composition. Call it “right-brained” if you will, but it’s commonly the case that naturally artistic people are drawn to more artistic fields – and graphic design is one of them.

2. Do you feel you have what it takes to be a successful Graphic Designer?
Just touching on the point I made above, some sort of artistic eye or creative flair is often helpful to becoming a designer, but there are many more traits required.

Are you willing to learn? Technical knowledge of the programs used to create today’s layouts is a MUST, so you need to ask yourself if you’re tech-savvy enough (or willing enough) to learn how to turn what’s in your head into tangible, print-ready collateral. It’s not a matter of learning one or two programs… to be truly successful, you will need to know a very wide variety of layout, illustration and photo manipulation programs, as well as web authoring programs and coding languages if you wish to pursue website design.

Are you good with people? While you may think all graphic artists work individually, that’s not always the case. Entry-level designers often start working in a team environment, so you’ll need to be able to work with other designers and under a manager or Art Director while you gain valuable skills. If you have aspirations of becoming a freelancer and want to work on your own, then you’ll need to be able to communicate well with potential clients.

3. Can you take criticism?
Oh yes, your work will be criticized. Just because your Mom loves the Mother’s Day card you made for her in MS Word doesn’t mean someone out in the world will pay you for it. Be willing to accept criticism for what it’s worth and use it to improve your abilities. If someone tells you your design stinks, you need to be able to smile, shrug it off, and find a way to make it better. If you’re the type of person who doesn’t believe anyone else’s opinion matters, you are going into the wrong type of business. As a Graphic Designer, you’re serving others, not yourself. It’s going to be your job to create good design (and defend it), but ultimately make your boss or client happy!

You’ve answered “Yes” to all the questions above… now what? Steps to becoming a designer:
OPTION A:
Get an advanced education from a Graphic Design School or University Graphic Arts program.

When I started in the world of graphic design 11 years ago there was adequate competition, but nothing like there is today. Since computers took over and re-shaped the art of design, knowledge of the fundamentals as well as design software is key to being competitive. Education in the field of design is almost essential nowadays, and is by far the most thorough means of diving into the field.

Find a school that offers a degree in Visual Communications or Graphic Design (or some variant thereof) who will teach you the fundamentals of creating masterful design, as well as the technical programs used to execute your ideas. From typography to layout, InDesign to Flash, you’ll need to know it all. You can gain much of this knowledge from Art Institutes, Universities or Graphic Design technical schools. Find one that’s right for you, your budget, and your situation. Talk to different schools and find out if they offer scholarships or grants and apply for them all. Student loans are constantly going skyward and, often, simple things like filling out an application or sending in one of your latest artistic creations is all it takes to get free money for school.

Teach yourself to become a graphic designer - self study to become a designer with no formal design education

OPTION B: Self-Study

I personally believe this is the more difficult path, but if your situation hinders your ability to train at a school, then your only other option is to learn on your own, and you can certainly do it.

First, I suggest learning the programs. You’ll need to know how to use a professional layout program (sorry folks, Word and PageMaker are not industry standard) such as QuarkXPress or InDesign, as well as photo manipulation and illustration programs. Adobe has made it very easy to get all the programs you need out of one box with their Design Suite (which includes InDesign, Illustrator, Photoshop, Acrobat and a few other programs), so that may be the way to go. It’ll cost you roughly $1200 (USD), but that pales in comparison to the cost of college tuition.

Go through the tutorials, read the manuals (Adobe actually makes them fairly easy to follow) and gain as much technical knowledge about the programs as you possibly can, then start volunteering your work. If your nephew’s 3rd birthday is coming up, offer to design his invitations for free. If your neighbor wants to sell his house, offer to design his flyers for free. If your friend is starting their own business, offer to design them a logo and business cards (yep, for free). Do whatever you can to put your newly gained skills to use, but don’t do it for money… do it for portfolio pieces. One of the most wonderful things about the Graphic Design field is that the emphasis is not on your degrees or education, but on your portfolio. This is how you will be judged. This is how you will be hired. Your portfolio will ultimately determine your success.

Show off your quality graphic design portfolio as a professional graphic designer yourselfOnce you’ve established a quality portfolio with pieces you’ve designed for yourself as well as others, be prepared to show it off. Get a nice portfolio case or find a creative way to present it, and start applying for jobs. Most companies will require electronic pieces to be emailed to them or a link to an online portfolio of some sort, but eventually you’ll need to bring those pieces (and more) into your one-on-one interview. If you’re determined to be a freelancer, you’ll be showing these pieces to potential clients and it will be your job to convince them that you’re the person for the job.

When you’ve accepted your first professional position, remember to always continue learning and improve skills and portfolio. It will be satisfying to you, and you will only become more successful.

I hope this article has helped the young man who emailed me and answered questions for those of you with dreams of becoming a professional Graphic Designer. If you have any questions or comments I encourage you to contact me through my website at www.ellephillips.com.

Technorati Tags: graphic design career, graphic design careers, design careers, design career, design education, graphic design education, design school, graphic design school, be a designer, be a graphic designer, become a graphic designer, become a designer, design advice, graphic design advice, how to deisgn, how to graphic design, design career advice, graphic design career advice, design tips, graphic design tips, design career tips, graphic design career tips. (www.allgraphicdesign.com)

Lorem Ipsum

2008-07-14T10:41:00.000+07:00

What is Lorem Ipsum?

Lorem Ipsum is simply dummy text of the printing and typesetting industry. Lorem Ipsum has been the industry's standard dummy text ever since the 1500s, when an unknown printer took a galley of type and scrambled it to make a type specimen book. It has survived not only five centuries, but also the leap into electronic typesetting, remaining essentially unchanged. It was popularised in the 1960s with the release of Letraset sheets containing Lorem Ipsum passages, and more recently with desktop publishing software like Aldus PageMaker including versions of Lorem Ipsum.

Why do we use it?
It is a long established fact that a reader will be distracted by the readable content of a page when looking at its layout. The point of using Lorem Ipsum is that it has a more-or-less normal distribution of letters, as opposed to using 'Content here, content here', making it look like readable English. Many desktop publishing packages and web page editors now use Lorem Ipsum as their default model text, and a search for 'lorem ipsum' will uncover many web sites still in their infancy. Various versions have evolved over the years, sometimes by accident, sometimes on purpose (injected humour and the like).

Where does it come from?
Contrary to popular belief, Lorem Ipsum is not simply random text. It has roots in a piece of classical Latin literature from 45 BC, making it over 2000 years old. Richard McClintock, a Latin professor at Hampden-Sydney College in Virginia, looked up one of the more obscure Latin words, consectetur, from a Lorem Ipsum passage, and going through the cites of the word in classical literature, discovered the undoubtable source. Lorem Ipsum comes from sections 1.10.32 and 1.10.33 of "de Finibus Bonorum et Malorum" (The Extremes of Good and Evil) by Cicero, written in 45 BC. This book is a treatise on the theory of ethics, very popular during the Renaissance. The first line of Lorem Ipsum, "Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet..", comes from a line in section 1.10.32.

The standard chunk of Lorem Ipsum used since the 1500s is reproduced below for those interested. Sections 1.10.32 and 1.10.33 from "de Finibus Bonorum et Malorum" by Cicero are also reproduced in their exact original form, accompanied by English versions from the 1914 translation by H. Rackham.

Where can I get some?
There are many variations of passages of Lorem Ipsum available, but the majority have suffered alteration in some form, by injected humour, or randomised words which don't look even slightly believable. If you are going to use a passage of Lorem Ipsum, you need to be sure there isn't anything embarrassing hidden in the middle of text. All the Lorem Ipsum generators on the Internet tend to repeat predefined chunks as necessary, making this the first true generator on the Internet. It uses a dictionary of over 200 Latin words, combined with a handful of model sentence structures, to generate Lorem Ipsum which looks reasonable. The generated Lorem Ipsum is therefore always free from repetition, injected humour, or non-characteristic words etc. (www.lipsum.com)

GET LOREM IPSUM GENERATE

Creative Thinking

2008-07-12T08:46:00.000+07:00

RAMuch of the thinking done in formal education emphasizes the skills of analysis--teaching students how to understand claims, follow or create a logical argument, figure out the answer, eliminate the incorrect paths and focus on the correct one. However, there is another kind of thinking, one that focuses on exploring ideas, generating possibilities, looking for many right answers rather than just one. Both of these kinds of thinking are vital to a successful working life, yet the latter one tends to be ignored until after college. We might differentiate these two kinds of thinking like this:

Critical Thinking	Creative Thinking
analytic	generative
convergent	divergent
vertical	lateral
probability	possibility
judgment	suspended judgment
focused	diffuse
objective	subjective
answer	an answer
left brain	right brain
verbal	visual
linear	associative
reasoning	richness, novelty
yes but	yes and

In an activity like problem solving, both kinds of thinking are important to us. First, we must analyze the problem; then we must generate possible solutions; next we must choose and implement the best solution; and finally, we must evaluate the effectiveness of the solution. As you can see, this process reveals an alternation between the two kinds of thinking, critical and creative. In practice, both kinds of thinking operate together much of the time and are not really independent of each other.

What is Creativity?

An Ability. A simple definition is that creativity is the ability to imagine or invent something new. As we will see below, creativity is not the ability to create out of nothing (only God can do that), but the ability to generate new ideas by combining, changing, or reapplying existing ideas. Some creative ideas are astonishing and brilliant, while others are just simple, good, practical ideas that no one seems to have thought of yet.

Believe it or not, everyone has substantial creative ability. Just look at how creative children are. In adults, creativity has too often been suppressed through education, but it is still there and can be reawakened. Often all that's needed to be creative is to make a commitment to creativity and to take the time for it.

An Attitude. Creativity is also an attitude: the ability to accept change and newness, a willingness to play with ideas and possibilities, a flexibility of outlook, the habit of enjoying the good, while looking for ways to improve it. We are socialized into accepting only a small number of permitted or normal things, like chocolate-covered strawberries, for example. The creative person realizes that there are other possibilities, like peanut butter and banana sandwiches, or chocolate-covered prunes.

A Process. Creative people work hard and continually to improve ideas and solutions, by making gradual alterations and refinements to their works. Contrary to the mythology surrounding creativity, very, very few works of creative excellence are produced with a single stroke of brilliance or in a frenzy of rapid activity. Much closer to the real truth are the stories of companies who had to take the invention away from the inventor in order to market it because the inventor would have kept on tweaking it and fiddling with it, always trying to make it a little better.

The creative person knows that there is always room for improvement.

Creative Methods

Several methods have been identified for producing creative results. Here are the five classic ones:

Evolution. This is the method of incremental improvement. New ideas stem from other ideas, new solutions from previous ones, the new ones slightly improved over the old ones. Many of the very sophisticated things we enjoy today developed through a long period of constant incrementation. Making something a little better here, a little better there gradually makes it something a lot better--even entirely different from the original.

For example, look at the history of the automobile or any product of technological progress. With each new model, improvements are made. Each new model builds upon the collective creativity of previous models, so that over time, improvements in economy, comfort, and durability take place. Here the creativity lies in the refinement, the step-by-step improvement, rather than in something completely new. Another example would be the improvement of the common wood screw by what are now commonly called drywall screws. They have sharper threads which are angled more steeply for faster penetration and better holding. The points are self tapping. The shanks are now threaded all the way up on lengths up to two inches. The screws are so much better that they can often be driven in without pilot holes, using a power drill.

The evolutionary method of creativity also reminds us of that critical principle: Every problem that has been solved can be solved again in a better way. Creative thinkers do not subscribe to the idea that once a problem has been solved, it can be forgotten, or to the notion that "if it ain't broke, don't fix it." A creative thinker's philosophy is that "there is no such thing as an insignificant improvement."

Synthesis. With this method, two or more existing ideas are combined into a third, new idea. Combining the ideas of a magazine and an audio tape gives the idea of a magazine you can listen to, one useful for blind people or freeway commuters.

For example, someone noticed that a lot of people on dates went first to dinner and then to the theater. Why not combine these two events into one? Thus, the dinner theater, where people go first to eat and then to see a play or other entertainment.

Revolution. Sometimes the best new idea is a completely different one, an marked change from the previous ones. While an evolutionary improvement philosophy might cause a professor to ask, "How can I make my lectures better and better?" a revolutionary idea might be, "Why not stop lecturing and have the students teach each other, working as teams or presenting reports?"

For example, the evolutionary technology in fighting termites eating away at houses has been to develop safer and faster pesticides and gasses to kill them. A somewhat revolutionary change has been to abandon gasses altogether in favor of liquid nitrogen, which freezes them to death or microwaves, which bake them. A truly revolutionary creative idea would be to ask, "How can we prevent them from eating houses in the first place?" A new termite bait that is placed in the ground in a perimeter around a house provides one answer to this question.

Reapplication. Look at something old in a new way. Go beyond labels. Unfixate, remove prejudices, expectations and assumptions and discover how something can be reapplied. One creative person might go to the junkyard and see art in an old model T transmission. He paints it up and puts it in his living room. Another creative person might see in the same transmission the necessary gears for a multi-speed hot walker for his horse. He hooks it to some poles and a motor and puts it in his corral. The key is to see beyond the previous or stated applications for some idea, solution, or thing and to see what other application is possible.

For example, a paperclip can be used as a tiny screwdriver if filed down; paint can be used as a kind of glue to prevent screws from loosening in machinery; dishwashing detergents can be used to remove the DNA from bacteria in a lab; general purpose spray cleaners can be used to kill ants.

Changing Direction. Many creative breakthroughs occur when attention is shifted from one angle of a problem to another. This is sometimes called creative insight.

A classic example is that of the highway department trying to keep kids from skateboarding in a concrete-lined drainage ditch. The highway department put up a fence to keep the kids out; the kids went around it. The department then put up a longer fence; the kids cut a hole in it. The department then put up a stronger fence; it, too, was cut. The department then put a threatening sign on the fence; it was ignored. Finally, someone decided to change direction, and asked, "What really is the problem here? It's not that the kids keep getting through the barrier, but that they want to skateboard in the ditch. So how can we keep them from skateboarding in the ditch?" The solution was to remove their desire by pouring some concrete in the bottom of the ditch to remove the smooth curve. The sharp angle created by the concrete made skateboarding impossible and the activity stopped. No more skateboarding problems, no more fence problems.

This example reveals a critical truth in problem solving: the goal is to solve the problem, not to implement a particular solution. When one solution path is not working, shift to another. There is no commitment to a particular path, only to a particular goal. Path fixation can sometimes be a problem for those who do not understand this; they become overcommitted to a path that does not work and only frustration results.

Negative Attitudes That Block Creativity

1. Oh no, a problem! The reaction to a problem is often a bigger problem than the problem itself. Many people avoid or deny problems until it's too late, largely because these people have never learned the appropriate emotional, psychological, and practical responses. A problem is an opportunity. The happiest people welcome and even seek out problems, meeting them as challenges and opportunities to improve things. Definition: a problem is (1) seeing the difference between what you have and what you want or (2) recognizing or believing that there is something better than the current situation or (3) an opportunity for a positive act. Seeking problems aggressively will build confidence, increase happiness, and give you a better sense of control over your life.

2. It can't be done. This attitude is, in effect, surrendering before the battle. By assuming that something cannot be done or a problem cannot be solved, a person gives the problem a power or strength it didn't have before. And giving up before starting is, of course, self fulfilling. But look at the history of solutions and the accompanying skeptics: man will never fly, diseases will never be conquered, rockets will never leave the atmosphere. Again, the appropriate attitude is summed up by the statement, "The difficult we do immediately; the impossible takes a little longer."

3. I can't do it. Or There's nothing I can do. Some people think, well maybe the problem can be solved by some expert, but not by me because I'm not (a) smart enough, (b) an engineer, or (c) a blank (whether educated, expert, etc.) Again, though, look at the history of problem solving.

Who were the Wright brothers that they could invent an airplane? Aviation engineers? No, they were bicycle mechanics. The ball point pen was invented by a printer's proofreader, Ladislao Biro, not a mechanical engineer. Major advances in submarine design were made by English clergyman G. W. Garrett and by Irish schoolmaster John P. Holland. The cotton gin was invented by that well known attorney and tutor, Eli Whitney. The fire extinguisher was invented by a captain of militia, George Manby.

And so on. In fact, a major point made by recent writers about corporate excellence is that innovations in industry almost always come from individuals (not research groups) outside of the area of the invention. General Motors invented Freon, the refrigeration chemical, and tetraethyl lead, the gasoline additive. Kodachrome was invented by two musicians. The continuous steel casting process was invented by a watchmaker (fooling around with brass casting). Soap making chemists turned down the problem of inventing synthetic detergents: those detergents were invented by dye making chemists.

In a nutshell, a good mind with a positive attitude and some good problem solving skills will go far in solving any problem. Interest in and commitment to the problem are the keys. Motivation--a willingness to expend the effort--is more important than laboratory apparatus. And remember that you can always do something. Even if you cannot totally eradicate the problem from the face of the earth, you can always do something to make the situation better.

4. But I'm not creative. Everyone is creative to some extent. Most people are capable of very high levels of creativity; just look at young children when they play and imagine. The problem is that this creativity has been suppressed by education. All you need to do is let it come back to the surface. You will soon discover that you are surprisingly creative.

5. That's childish. In our effort to appear always mature and sophisticated, we often ridicule the creative, playful attitudes that marked our younger years. But if you solve a problem that saves your marriage or gets you promoted or keeps your friend from suicide, do you care whether other people describe your route to the solution as "childish?" Besides, isn't play a lot of fun? Remember that sometimes people laugh when something is actually funny, but often they laugh when they lack the imagination to understand the situation.

6. What will people think? There is strong social pressure to conform and to be ordinary and not creative.

Here are some overheard examples:

Creative Person: "I like to put water in my orange juice so it's less sweet."
Ordinary Person: "You're weird, you know?"

Ordinary Person: "What are you doing?"
Creative Person: "We're painting our mailbox."
Ordinary Person: "You're crazy."

Creative Person: "Why don't we add a little garlic?"
Ordinary Person: "Because the recipe doesn't call for garlic."

Ordinary Person: "Why are you going this way? It's longer."
Creative Person: "Because I like the drive."
Ordinary Person: "Did anyone ever tell you you're strange?"

The constant emphasis we see in society is toward the ruthlessly practical and conformist. Even the wild fashions, from those in Vogue to punk rock, are narrowly defined, and to deviate from them is considered wrong or ridiculous. Some peoples' herd instinct is so strong that they make sheep look like radical individualists.

So, what will people think? Well, they're already talking about you, saying that your nose is too big or your shoes are funny or you date weird people. So, since others are going to talk about you in unflattering ways anyway, you might as well relax and let your creativity and individualism flow.

Almost every famous contributor to the betterment of civilization was ridiculed and sometimes even jailed. Think about Galileo. And look what happened to Jesus. Quotation: "Progress is made only by those who are strong enough to endure being laughed at." Solutions are often new ideas, and new ideas, being strange, are usually greeted with laughter, contempt, or both. That's just a fact of life, so make up your mind not to let it bother you. Ridicule should be viewed as a badge of real innovative thinking.

7. I might fail. Thomas Edison, in his search for the perfect filament for the incandescent lamp, tried anything he could think of, including whiskers from a friend's beard. In all, he tried about 1800 things. After about 1000 attempts, someone asked him if he was frustrated at his lack of success. He said something like, "I've gained a lot of knowledge--I now know a thousand things that won't work."

Fear of failure is one of the major obstacles to creativity and problem solving. The cure is to change your attitude about failure. Failures along the way should be expected and accepted; they are simply learning tools that help focus the way toward success. Not only is there nothing wrong with failing, but failing is a sign of action and struggle and attempt--much better than inaction. The go-with-the- flow types may never fail, but they are essentially useless to humanity, nor can they ever enjoy the feeling of accomplishment that comes after a long struggle.

Suppose you let your fear of failure guide your risk taking and your attempts. You try only three things in a year because you are sure of succeeding. At the end of the year the score is: Successes 3, Failures 0. Now suppose the next year you don't worry about failing, so you try a hundred things. You fail at 70 of them. At the end of the year the score is Successes 30, Failures 70. Which would you rather have--three successes or 30--ten times as many? And imagine what 70 failures will have taught you. Proverb: Mistakes aren't fun, but they sure are educational.

Myths about Creative Thinking and Problem Solving

1. Every problem has only one solution (or one right answer). The goal of problem solving is to solve the problem, and most problems can be solved in any number of ways. If you discover a solution that works, it is a good solution. There may be other solutions thought of by other people, but that doesn't make your solution wrong. What is THE solution to putting words on paper? Fountain pen, ball point, pencil, marker, typewriter, printer, Xerox machine, printing press?

2. The best answer/solution/method has already been found. Look at the history of any solution set and you'll see that improvements, new solutions, new right answers, are always being found. What is the solution to human transportation? The ox or horse, the cart, the wagon, the train, the car, the airplane, the jet, the SST? Is that the best and last? What about pneumatic tubes, hovercraft, even Star Trek type beams?

What is the best way to put words on paper? The word processor? Is that the last invention? How about voice recognition, or thought wave input?

On a more everyday level, many solutions now seen as best or at least entrenched were put in place hastily and without much thought--such as the use of drivers' licenses for ID cards or social security numbers for taxpayer ID numbers. Other solutions are entrenched simply for historical reasons: they've always been done that way. Why do shoe laces still exist, when technology has produced several other, better ways to attach shoes to feet (like velcro, elastic, snap buttons, and so on)?

3. Creative answers are complex technologically. Only a few problems require complex technological solutions. Most problems you'll meet with require only a thoughtful solution requiring personal action and perhaps a few simple tools. Even many problems that seem to require a technological solution can be addressed in other ways.

For example, what is the solution to the large percentage of packages ruined by the Post Office? Look at the Post Office package handling method. Packages are tossed in bins when you send them. For the solution, look at United Parcel. When you send a package, it is put on a shelf. The change from bin to shelf is not a complex or technological solution; it's just a good idea, using commonly available materials.

As another example, when hot dogs were first invented, they were served to customers with gloves to hold them. Unfortunately, the customers kept walking off with the gloves. The solution was not at all complex: serve the hot dog on a roll so that the customer's fingers were still insulated from the heat. The roll could be eaten along with the dog. No more worries about disappearing gloves. (Note by the way what a good example of changing direction this is. Instead of asking, "How can I keep the gloves from being taken?" the hot dog server stopped thinking about gloves altogether.)

4. Ideas either come or they don't. Nothing will help. There are many successful techniques for stimulating idea generation. We will be discussing and applying them.

Mental Blocks to Creative Thinking and Problem Solving

1. Prejudice. The older we get, the more preconceived ideas we have about things. These preconceptions often prevent us from seeing beyond what we already know or believe to be possible. They inhibit us from accepting change and progress.

Example problem: How to connect sections of airplanes with more ease and strength than using rivets. A modern solution is to use glue--glue the sections together. We probably wouldn't think of this solution because of our prejudice about the word and idea of glue. But there are many kinds of glue, and the kind used to stick plane parts together makes a bond stronger than the metal of the parts themselves.

Another problem: How can we make lighter weight bullet proof windows? Thicker glass is too heavy. Answer: Use plastic. Again, we are prejudiced against plastic. But some plastics are not flimsy at all and are used in place of steel and in bullet proof windows.

Another problem: Make a ship's hull that won't rust or rot like steel or wood. Solution: Use concrete. Our prejudice is that concrete is too heavy. Why not make lightweight concrete? That's what's done.

Final example: How to divide a piece of cake equally between two kids so they won't complain that one kid is preferred over the other: "You gave him the bigger piece; you like him better! Waaaah!" Solution: Put the kids in charge of dividing the cake. Our prejudice is that immature, selfish kids can't do the job. But the solution, one cuts the cake, the other has first choice of pieces, works very well.

2. Functional fixation. Sometimes we begin to see an object only in terms of its name rather in terms of what it can do. Thus, we see a mop only as a device for cleaning a floor, and do not think that it might be useful for clearing cobwebs from the ceiling, washing the car, doing aerobic exercise, propping a door open or closed, and so on. (Later on in the semester, we will be doing "uses for" to break out of this fixation.)

There is also a functional fixation of businesses. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries the railroads saw themselves as railroads. When automobiles and later airplanes began to come in, the railroads didn't adapt. "That's not our business," they said. But if they had seen themselves as in the people transportation business rather than in the railroad business, they could have capitalized on a great opportunity.

Similarly, when the telephone began its rise, some of the telegraph companies said, "That's not our business; we're telegraph companies." But if they had said, "Hey, we're in the communication business, and here's a new way to communicate," they would have grown rather than died. Compare Western Union to AT&T. And have you heard of those big calculator companies Dietzgen or Pickett? No? Well, they were among the biggest makers of slide rules. But when electronic calculators began to rise, they didn't know what business they were in. They thought they were in the slide rule business, when they were really in the calculator business. They didn't adapt, they didn't accept the challenge of change and opportunity, and they fell.

And there's a functional fixation of people, too. Think a minute how you react when you see your pastor mowing his lawn, or your auto mechanic on a television show promoting a book. Stereotyping can even be a form of functional fixation--how many people would laugh at a blonde quoting Aristotle? Too often we permit only a narrow range of attitudes and behaviors in other people, based on bias, prejudice, hasty generalization, or limited past experience. Think of those statements like, "I can't believe he said that," or "Imagine her doing that," and so on. But recall the proverb, "The goal of my life is not to live down to your expectations."

3. Learned helplessness. This is the feeling that you don't have the tools, knowledge, materials, ability, to do anything, so you might as well not try. We are trained to rely on other people for almost everything. We think small and limit ourselves. But the world can be interacted with.

If you are in need of information, there are libraries, bookstores, friends, professors, and, of course, the Internet. And there are also city, county, and state government agencies with addresses and phone numbers and web sites. There are thousands of government agencies that really exist and that will talk to you. Contact the EPA if you're working on air pollution or pesticides. Get some government publications. Call your state senator or federal congressman for help on bills, information, problems. Contact the manufacturer of a product to find out what you want to know about it.

If you are technologically poor, you can learn. Learn how to cook, use tools, make clothes, use a computer. You can learn to do anything you really want to do. All you need is the motivation and commitment. You can learn to fly an airplane, drive a truck, scuba dive, fix a car--name it.

4. Psychological blocks. Some solutions are not considered or are rejected simply because our reaction to them is "Yuck." But icky solutions themselves may be useful or good if they solve a problem well or save your life. Eating lizards and grasshoppers doesn't sound great, but if it keeps you alive in the wilderness, it's a good solution.

Perhaps more importantly, what at first seem to be icky ideas may lead to better solutions--de-ickified analogues of the original. When doctors noted that some unsophisticated natives were using giant ant heads to suture wounds, they imitated this pincer-closing technique by inventing the surgical staple.

Psychological blocks prevent you from doing something just because it doesn't sound good or right, which is a pretty ridiculous thing. Overcoming such blocks can be really beneficial. Navy commandos in Vietnam overcame their blocks and put on women's panty hose when they marched through the swamps and jungle. The pantyhose cut down on the friction and rubbing from the plants and aided in removing the dozens of leeches after a mission. Overcoming the block to using your own blood to write a help note could save your life someday if you got kidnapped.

Positive Attitudes for Creativity

1. Curiosity. Creative people want to know things--all kinds of things-- just to know them. Knowledge does not require a reason. The question, "Why do you want to know that?" seems strange to the creative person, who is likely to respond, "Because I don't know the answer." Knowledge is enjoyable and often useful in strange and unexpected ways.

For example, I was once attempting to repair something, without apparent success, when an onlooker asked testily, "Do you know what you're doing?" I replied calmly, "No, that's why I'm doing it."

Next, knowledge, and especially wide ranging knowledge, is necessary for creativity to flourish to its fullest. Much creativity arises from variations of a known or combinations of two knowns. The best ideas flow from a well equipped mind. Nothing can come from nothing.

In addition to knowing, creative people want to know why. What are the reasons behind decisions, problems, solutions, events, facts, and so forth? Why this way and not another? And why not try this or that?

The curious person's questioning attitude toward life is a positive one, not a destructive one reflecting skepticism or negativism. It often seems threatening because too often there is no good reason behind many of the things that are taken for granted--there is no "why" behind the status quo.

So ask questions of everyone. Ask the same question of different people just to be able to compare the answers. Look into areas of knowledge you've never before explored, whether cloth dying, weather forecasting, food additives, ship building, the U.S. budget, or the toxicity of laundry detergents.

2. Challenge. Curious people like to identify and challenge the assumptions behind ideas, proposals, problems, beliefs, and statements. Many assumptions, of course, turn out to be quite necessary and solid, but many others have been assumed unnecessarily, and in breaking out of those assumptions often comes a new idea, a new path, a new solution.

For example, when we think of a college, we traditionally think of a physical campus with classrooms, a library, and some nice trees. But why must college be a place (with congregated students and faculty) at all? Thus, the electronic college now exists, where students "go" to college right at home, online. Correspondence courses have existed for years, too, beginning with the challenging of the school-as-centralized-place idea.

When we think of an electric motor, we automatically think of a rotating shaft machine. But why assume that? Why can't an electric motor have a linear output, moving in a straight line rather than a circle? With such a challenged assumption came the linear motor, able to power trains, elevators, slide locks, and so on.

Problem: We make brandy, and for this special edition of our finest kind, we want a fully-grown pear in one piece inside each bottle. The bottle is narrow necked. How can we do it? As you think, watch for the assumptions you are making. Possible solutions (assuming fully grown pear): close the neck or bottom after insertion, use a plastic bottle like heat-shrink tubing, change to a wide mouth bottle. If we do not assume a fully grown pear: grow the pear from a bud inside the bottle.

3. Constructive discontent. This is not a whining, griping kind of discontent, but the ability to see a need for improvement and to propose a method of making that improvement. Constructive discontent is a positive, enthusiastic discontent, reflecting the thought, "Hey, I know a way to make that better."

Constructive discontent is necessary for a creative problem solver, for if you are happy with everything the way it is, you won't want to change anything. Only when you become discontent with something, when you see a problem, will you want to solve the problem and improve the situation.

One of the hallmarks of the constructively discontented person is that of a problem seeking outlook. The more problems you find, the more solutions and therefore improvements you can make. Even previously solved problems can often be solved again, in a better way. A constructively discontent person might think, "This is an excellent solution, but I wonder if there isn't another solution that works even better (or costs less, etc)."

Another mark of constructive discontent is the enjoyment of challenge. Creative people are eager to test their own limits and the limits of problems, willing to work hard, to persevere and not give up easily. Sometimes the discontent is almost artificial--they aren't really unhappy with the status quo of some area, but they want to find something better just for the challenge of it and the opportunity to improve their own lives and those of others.

4. A belief that most problems can be solved. By faith at first and by experience later on, the creative thinker believes that something can always be done to eliminate or help alleviate almost every problem. Problems are solved by a commitment of time and energy, and where this commitment is present, few things are impossible.

The belief in the solvability of problems is especially useful early on in attacking any problem, because many problems at first seem utterly impossible and scare off the fainter hearted. Those who take on the problem with confidence will be the ones most likely to think through or around the impossibility of the problem.

5. The ability to suspend judgment and criticism. Many new ideas, because they are new and unfamiliar, seem strange, odd, bizarre, even repulsive. Only later do they become "obviously" great. Other ideas, in their original incarnations, are indeed weird, but they lead to practical, beautiful, elegant things. Thus, it is important for the creative thinker to be able to suspend judgment when new ideas are arriving, to have an optimistic attitude toward ideas in general, and to avoid condemning them with the typical kinds of negative responses like, "That will never work; that's no good; what an idiotic idea; that's impossible," and so forth. Hospital sterilization and antiseptic procedures, television, radio, the Xerox machine, and stainless steel all met with ho-hums and even hostile rejection before their persevering inventors finally sold someone on the ideas.

Some of our everyday tools that we now love and use daily, were opposed when they were originally presented: Aluminum cookware? No one wants that. Teflon pans? They'll never sell. Erasers on pencils? That would only encourage carelessness. Computers? There's no market for more than a few, so why build them?

Remember then that (1) an idea may begin to look good only after it becomes a bit more familiar or is seen in a slightly different context or clothing or circumstance and (2) even a very wild idea can serve as a stepping stone to a practical, efficient idea. By too quickly bringing your judgment into play, these fragile early ideas and their source can be destroyed. The first rule of brainstorming is to suspend judgment so that your idea-generating powers will be free to create without the restraint of fear or criticism. You can always go back later and examine--as critically as you want--what you have thought of.

Proverb: "A crank is a genius whose idea hasn't yet caught on."

6. Seeing the good in the bad. Creative thinkers, when faced with poor solutions, don't cast them away. Instead, they ask, "What's good about it?" because there may be something useful even in the worst ideas. And however little that good may be, it might be turned to good effect or made greater.

Example problem: How can we get college students to learn grammar better? Solution: Spank their bottoms with a hickory stick. This isn't a good solution, partly because it's probably illegal. But should we just toss it out? Why not ask what's good about it? (1) it gives individual, attention to the poor performers, (2) it gives them public attention, (3) it motivates other students as well as the student being spanked, (4) it's easy and costs nothing. The next question is, Can we adapt or incorporate some of these good things into a more acceptable solution, whether derivative of the original or not?

We easily fall into either/or thinking and believe that a bad solution is bad through and through, in every aspect, when in fact, it may have some good parts we can borrow and use on a good solution, or it may do inappropriately something that's worth doing appropriately. And often, the bad solution has just one really glaring bad part, that when remedied, leaves quite a good solution. In the above example, changing the physical spanking to a verbal spanking changes the entire aspect of the solution while keeping all the good points we identified.

7. Problems lead to improvements. The attitude of constructive discontent searches for problems and possible areas of improvement, but many times problems arrive on their own. But such unexpected and perhaps unwanted problems are not necessarily bad, because they often permit solutions that leave the world better than before the problem arose.

For example, the first margarine was made from beef fat, milk, water, and chopped cow udder. It wasn't extremely tasty or healthy. Then about the turn of the century a shortage of beef fat created a problem. What to use? The margarine makers turned to vegetable fats from various plants and the soybean, corn, and sunflower oils they used are still used today. The margarine is healthier and tastes better.

Or think about exams or papers. When you don't do as well as you want, you think, "Oh no!" But actually, you have a good insight into what you don't know and still need to learn. You are aware of the geography of your knowledge in a much more detailed form than before the errors showed up.

8. A problem can also be a solution. A fact that one person describes as a problem can sometimes be a solution for someone else. Above we noted that creative thinkers can find good ideas in bad solutions. Creative thinkers also look at problems and ask, "Is there something good about this problem?"

For example, soon after the advent of cyanoacrylate adhesives (super glue), it was noted that if you weren't careful, you could glue your fingers together with it. This problem--a permanent skin bond--was soon seen as a solution, also. Surgeons in Viet Nam began to use super glue to glue wounds together.

Another example, also involving glue: 3M chemists were experimenting with adhesives and accidentally came up with one that was so weak you could peel it right back off. Hold strength, shear strength, all were way below the minimum standards for any self-respecting adhesive. A glue that won't hold? Quite a problem. But this problem was also a solution, as you now see in Post-It Notes.

9. Problems are interesting and emotionally acceptable. Many people confront every problem with a shudder and a turn of the head. They don't even want to admit that a problem exists--with their car, their spouse, their child, their job, their house, whatever. As a result, often the problem persists and drives them crazy or rises to a crisis and drives them crazy.

Creative people see problems as interesting challenges worth tackling. Problems are not fearful beasts to be feared or loathed; they are worthy opponents to be jousted with and unhorsed. Problem solving is fun, educational, rewarding, ego building, helpful to society.

Miscellaneous Good Attitudes

1. Perseverance. Most people fail because they spend only nine minutes on a problem that requires ten minutes to solve. Creativity and problem solving are hard work and require fierce application of time and energy. There is no quick and easy secret. You need knowledge gained by study and research and you must put your knowledge to work by hard thinking and protracted experimentation. You’ve surely read of the difficulties and setbacks faced by most of the famous inventors--how many filaments Edison tried before he found a working one, how many aircraft designs failed in the attempt to break the sound barrier. But planning to persevere is planning to succeed.

2. A flexible imagination. Creative people are comfortable with imagination and with thinking so-called weird, wild, or unthinkable thoughts, just for the sake of stimulation. During brainstorming or just mental playfulness, all kinds of strange thoughts and ideas can be entertained. And the mind, pragmatist that it is, will probably find something useful in it all. We will look at several examples of this later on.

3. A belief that mistakes are welcome. Modern society has for some reason conceived the idea that the only unforgivable thing is to fail or make a mistake. Actually failure is an opportunity; mistakes show that something is being done. So creative people have come to realize and accept emotionally that making mistakes is no negative biggie. One chief executive of a big American corporation warns all his newly hired managers, "Make sure you make a reasonable number of mistakes." Mistakes are educational and can lead to success--because they mean you are doing something.

Sir Francis Pettit Smith, one of the early developers of the screw propeller, tried one design in 1836. During the test, half of it broke off--what a failure--but then the boat increased in speed substantially, revealing the efficiency of a new design, formed from a mistake.

In sum, as Vergil once said, "They can who think they can." Having the proper positive attitude about generating new and useful ideas and solving problems is really a large part of the whole process.

A few years ago, the pipes in my mom's house had finally rusted through and I was faced with the task of finding a plumber to get a bid. Knowing how much they charge for small repairs, I knew that doing a whole house would cost a fortune. I thought, "You know, I'd really like to do this job myself, but I wonder if I can." My neighbor happened to be around once when I said this, and he said, "Oh, you can do it." Just that simple expression gave me the positive attitude I needed to do it. So I did.

Characteristics of the Creative Person

curious
seeks problems
enjoys challenge
optimistic
able to suspend judgment
comfortable with imagination
sees problems as opportunities
sees problems as interesting
problems are emotionally acceptable
challenges assumptions
doesn't give up easily: perseveres, works hard

source : www.virtualsalt.com

Brainstorming

2008-07-12T08:30:00.000+07:00

Generating many radical and useful ideas

Brainstorming is a useful and popular tool that you can use to develop highly creative solutions to a problem.

It is particularly helpful when you need to break out of stale, established patterns of thinking, so that you can develop new ways of looking at things. This can be when you need to develop new opportunities, where you want to improve the service that you offer, or when existing approaches just aren't giving you the results you want.

Used with your team, it helps you bring the experience of all team members into play during problem solving.

This increases the richness of solutions explored (meaning that you can find better solutions to the problems you face, and make better decisions.) It can also help you get buy in from team members for the solution chosen - after all, they have helped create that solution.

Brainstorming and Lateral Thinking

Brainstorming is a lateral thinking process. It asks that people come up with ideas and thoughts that seem at first to be a bit shocking or crazy. You can then change and improve them into ideas that are useful, and often stunningly original.

During brainstorming sessions there should therefore be no criticism of ideas: You are trying to open up possibilities and break down wrong assumptions about the limits of the problem. Judgments and analysis at this stage will stunt idea generation.

Ideas should only be evaluated at the end of the brainstorming session - you can then explore solutions further using conventional approaches.

If your ideas begin to dry up, you can 'seed' the session with, for example, a random word

Individual Brainstorming

When you brainstorm on your own you will tend to produce a wider range of ideas than with group brainstorming - you do not have to worry about other people's egos or opinions, and can therefore be more freely creative. You may not, however, develop ideas as effectively as you do not have the experience of a group to help you.

When Brainstorming on your own, it can be helpful to use Mind Maps to arrange and develop ideas.

Group Brainstorming

Group brainstorming can be very effective as it uses the experience and creativity of all members of the group. When individual members reach their limit on an idea, another member's creativity and experience can take the idea to the next stage. Therefore, group brainstorming tends to develop ideas in more depth than individual brainstorming.

Brainstorming in a group can be risky for individuals. Valuable but strange suggestions may appear stupid at first sight. Because of such, you need to chair sessions tightly so that uncreative people do not crush these ideas and leave group members feeling humiliated.

How to Use the Tool:

To run a group brainstorming session effectively, do the following:

Define the problem you want solved clearly, and lay out any criteria to be met;
Keep the session focused on the problem;
Ensure that no one criticizes or evaluates ideas during the session. Criticism introduces an element of risk for group members when putting forward an idea. This stifles creativity and cripples the free running nature of a good brainstorming session;
Encourage an enthusiastic, uncritical attitude among members of the group. Try to get everyone to contribute and develop ideas, including the quietest members of the group;
Let people have fun brainstorming. Encourage them to come up with as many ideas as possible, from solidly practical ones to wildly impractical ones. Welcome creativity;
Ensure that no train of thought is followed for too long;
Encourage people to develop other people's ideas, or to use other ideas to create new ones; and
Appoint one person to note down ideas that come out of the session. A good way of doing this is to use a flip chart. This should be studied and evaluated after the session.

Where possible, participants in the brainstorming process should come from as wide a range of disciplines as possible. This brings a broad range of experience to the session and helps to make it more creative.

And again, it's worth exploring the use of computer-based tools for group brainstorming. As long as you're reasonably quick with keyboard and mouse, these significantly improve the quality and effectiveness of a brainstorming session.

Key Points:

Brainstorming is a great way of generating radical ideas. During the brainstorming process there is no criticism of ideas, as free rein is given to people's creativity (criticism and judgment cramp creativity.)

This often makes group brainstorming sessions enjoyable experiences, which are great for bringing team members together.

Individual brainstorming is best for generating many ideas, but tends to be less effective at developing them. Group brainstorming tends to develop fewer ideas, but takes each idea further. Group brainstorming needs formal rules for it to work smoothly. (www.mindtools.com)

How to find creative ideas

2008-07-11T16:07:00.000+07:00

Discover inspiring creative ideas through simple research.
By Alan Sharpe

Should you spend three weeks writing a headline? Probably.

When David Ogilvy landed the Rolls-Royce account, he spent three weeks learning about the car. In his reading, Ogilvy came across this statement, written by an engineer: "At sixty miles an hour, the loudest noise comes from the electric clock." Ogilvy made that elusive fact the headline for what became the most famous car advertisement of all time.

All great ads contain a big idea well executed. But how can you find that elusive big idea for the product or service you are promoting? Through exhaustive research.

Learn first-hand

If it's a cruise, take it. If it's a car, drive it. If it's a drink, swig it. If the shoe fits, wear it.
Visit the plant.
Work in the store.
Read the label. What, exactly, is anti-bacterial fluoride? And why should your prospective customers care?

Ask questions

Talk to customers. Why do they buy the product or service?
Schmooze with dealers and distributors. How does your product compare with competing products? Advantages and disadvantages? What single benefit motivates customers to gladly hand over their cash?
Sit behind the one-way mirror during focus groups. Participants often say things that you can take word-for-word and turn into winning headlines and subheads, even a big idea itself.
Talk to salespeople who move the product for a living. They usually have the best grasp on what differentiates the product in their marketplace.

That's what Rosser Reeves did when he worked at Ted Bates & Co. on the M&M Candies account. He interviewed the president, John MacNamara. Only after careful questioning did Reeves discover that the big idea for M&M's was inherent in the product. M&M's were the only candy in America that had chocolate surrounded by a sugar shell. Thus was born the memorable (and profitable) positioning line, "M&M candies melt in your mouth, not in your hand."

Study the literature

Read the marketing plan–how does your product or service stand out from competing offerings?
Read the company annual report–look for pithy testimonials from satisfied customers.
Read articles about the company. What does the trade press say about your features and benefits? customer service? reliability? warranty? reputation?
Read questionnaires and surveys conducted with customers and partners. Why are they satisfied? or peeved? What can your advertising do to change that?
Read the ads, brochures and sales letters produced by your competitors. How do they position themselves against what you are offering. What can you do in response?

Bud Robbins had well-known competitors. He worked for an ad agency on the Aeolian Piano Company account. The national sales manager for the firm explained to Robbins that the only real difference between an Aeolian grand piano and a comparably priced Steinway or Baldwin was the shipping weight–the Aeolian was heavier. Robbins asked why. "The Capo d’astro bar," replied the sales manager, who proceeded to crawl under the piano, and point to a metallic bar fixed across the harp and bearing down on the highest octaves.

"It takes 50 years before the harp in the piano warps," said the sale manager. "That's when the Capo d'astro bar goes to work. It prevents the warping."

Robbins took that product feature and made it the differentiator in his first ad, which was so successful that it created a six-year wait between order and delivery.

Study the category

Visit libraries and bookstores. Review books that describe the category that your product or service occupies. Discover what consumers are doing, what they are buying, and what appeals to them.
Read the consumer and trade publications that your target audience reads. Discover the issues that affect their lives, and think of ways to position your product or service to meet those needs.
Visit industry websites, looking for changes in consumption and purchasing behaviour that you can capitalize on.
Read white papers, looking for technology trends in your industry (the wireless revolution, for example, or the imminent disappearance of 35mm film in favour of digital photography).

You can't jump from nothing to a great idea. You need a springboard. And the best springboard is the information you gather through exhaustive research.
(http://www.sharpecopy.com/tips/find_big_ideas.html)

POP ART MOVEMENT

2008-07-11T11:16:00.000+07:00

Pop Art was one of the United States’ major artistic movements of the 20th century - aside from Abstract Expressionism, it was probably the biggest. It actually was first coined in Britain in 1955 but unsurprisingly the Americans took up the consumerist cause with much greater effect and conviction, and became the pioneers of the movement. Pop art and pop culture refers to the products of the mass media evolving in the late 1950s and 60s and also to the works of art that draw upon popular culture - packaging, television, advertisements, comic books, the cinema. Pop art was the medium that made real the breaking down of barriers that had existed for hundreds of hears between high (old-fashioned) art and mass culture.

In America, Pop Art is often considered as a counter-attack against Abstract Expressionism because it used more figurative aspects in its works. It was also related closely to Dada, an earlier movement (largely French) that poked fun at the highbrow and serious nature of the art world and also used everyday objects and mundane subjects. Warhol’s rows of Campbell’s tins of tomato soup are equivalent to Marcel Duchamp’s bicycles and urinals placed in galleries.

The Pop Artists favoured commercial methods of production, not dissimilar to the subjects they were using, as it meant that unlimited reproductions could be made. And this is typical of the perio because Pop Art happened out of a crucial time - it was inseparable from the prosperous and affluent era post-World War II. It was a time of enormous economic growth for the States and America was fast becoming a voracious consumer-orientated society. It was the beginning of the age of commercial manipulation, celebrities, exhibitionism and instant success. It was also the beginning of the age of homogenisation - of uniformity in commercial franchises, restaurants and languages or dialects.

Britain wasn’t too far behind the glossy commercialism found in the States although the British artist’s interpretation of the pop-culture was a bit more romantic than the Americans - a bit less brash perhaps. Our artists (like Peter Blake, David Hockney, Allen Jones and Richard Hamilton) didn’t create giant hamburgers in the style of Claes Oldenburg, nor did they paint Diana Dors with quite the same consequences as Andy Warhol found with Marilyn Monroe. They found their inspiration from America, not from Britain particularly, and so to them Pop Art was ‘an unhibited hymn to a civilisation half-real and half-imagined, a wonderland of pin-ups and pin-ball machines’ (Edward Lucie-Smith). They were more detached from it compared to their American contemporaries.

Pop art is lots of things that high-art isn’t - it’s mass-produced, it is expendable, it is low-cost, glamorous, witty and encourages big bucks, bright lights and big celebrities - there’s no sign of the impoverished artist slaving away in a tiny studio in this movement. However, it’s light-hearted sensibilities have been negated by some critics; Harold Rosenberg described Pop art as being ‘Like a joke without humour, told over and over again until it begins to sound like a threat… Advertising art which advertises itself as art that hates advertising.’

Is Pop art a serious comment on the contemporary condition – are the Pop artists cynical of the growing mass-media, material culture or is it simply just popular art – accessible, bright and glossy? (Rose Troughton - Artsworld- www.getpopart.com)

Global warming

2008-07-11T09:10:00.001+07:00

This article is about the current period of increasing global temperature. For other periods of warming in Earth’s history, see Palaeoclimatology and Geologic temperature record. See also climate change

Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s near-surface air and oceans since the mid-twentieth century, and its projected continuation.

The average global air temperature near the Earth’s surface increased 0.74 ± 0.18 °C (1.33 ± 0.32 °F) during the hundred years ending in 2005. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concludes “most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-twentieth century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic (man-made) greenhouse gas concentrations” via an enhanced greenhouse effect. Natural phenomena such as solar variation combined with volcanoes probably had a small warming effect from pre-industrial times to 1950 and a small cooling effect from 1950 onward.

These basic conclusions have been endorsed by at least thirty scientific societies and academies of science, including all of the national academies of science of the major industrialized countries. While individual scientists have voiced disagreement with some findings of the IPCC, the overwhelming majority of scientists working on climate change agree with the IPCC’s main conclusions.

Climate model projections summarized by the IPCC indicate that average global surface temperature will likely rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 °C (2.0 to 11.5 °F) during the twenty-first century. This range of values results from the use of differing scenarios of future greenhouse gas emissions as well as models with differing climate sensitivity. Although most studies focus on the period up to 2100, warming and sea level rise are expected to continue for more than a thousand years even if greenhouse gas levels are stabilized. The delay in reaching equilibrium is a result of the large heat capacity of the oceans.

Increasing global temperature will cause sea level to rise, and is expected to increase the intensity of extreme weather events and to change the amount and pattern of precipitation. Other effects of global warming include changes in agricultural yields, trade routes, glacier retreat, species extinctions and increases in the ranges of disease vectors.

Remaining scientific uncertainties include the amount of warming expected in the future, and how warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe. Most national governments have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but there is ongoing political and public debate worldwide regarding what, if any, action should be taken to reduce or reverse future warming or to adapt to its expected consequences.

Terminology

The term “global warming” refers to the warming in recent decades and its projected continuation, and implies a human influence. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) uses the term “climate change” for human-caused change, and “climate variability” for other changes. The term “anthropogenic global warming” (AGW) is sometimes used when focusing on human-induced changes.

Causes

Main articles: Attribution of recent climate change and Scientific opinion on climate change

The Earth’s climate changes in response to external forcing, including variations in its orbit around the Sun (orbital forcing),, changes in solar luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. The detailed causes of the recent warming remain an active field of research, but the scientific consensus is that the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases due to human activity caused most of the warming observed since the start of the industrial era. This attribution is clearest for the most recent 50 years, for which the most detailed data are available. Some other hypotheses departing from the consensus view have been suggested to explain most of the temperature increase. One such hypothesis proposes that warming may be the result of variations in solar activity.

None of the effects of forcing are instantaneous. The thermal inertia of the Earth’s oceans and slow responses of other indirect effects mean that the Earth’s current climate is not in equilibrium with the forcing imposed. Climate commitment studies indicate that even if greenhouse gases were stabilized at 2000 levels, a further warming of about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) would still occur.

Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere

The greenhouse effect was discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1824 and was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896. It is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared radiation by atmospheric gases warm a planet’s lower atmosphere and surface.
Existence of the greenhouse effect as such is not disputed. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases have a mean warming effect of about 33 °C (59 °F), without which Earth would be uninhabitable. On Earth, the major greenhouse gases are water vapor, which causes about 36–70% of the greenhouse effect (not including clouds); carbon dioxide (CO2), which causes 9–26%; methane (CH4), which causes 4–9%; and ozone, which causes 3–7%. The issue is how the strength of the greenhouse effect changes when human activity increases the atmospheric concentrations of some greenhouse gases.

Human activity since the industrial revolution has increased the concentration of various greenhouse gases, leading to increased radiative forcing from CO2, methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide. Molecule for molecule, methane is a more effective greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, but its concentration is much smaller so that its total radiative forcing is only about a fourth of that from carbon dioxide. Some other naturally occurring gases contribute small fractions of the greenhouse effect; one of these, nitrous oxide (N2O), is increasing in concentration owing to human activity such as agriculture. The atmospheric concentrations of CO2 and CH4 have increased by 31% and 149% respectively since the beginning of the industrial revolution in the mid-1700s. These levels are considerably higher than at any time during the last 650,000 years, the period for which reliable data has been extracted from ice cores. From less direct geological evidence it is believed that CO2 values this high were last attained 20 million years ago. Fossil fuel burning has produced approximately three-quarters of the increase in CO2 from human activity over the past 20 years. Most of the rest is due to land-use change, in particular deforestation.
The present atmospheric concentration of CO2 is about 385 parts per million (ppm) by volume. Future CO2 levels are expected to rise due to ongoing burning of fossil fuels and land-use change. The rate of rise will depend on uncertain economic, sociological, technological, and natural developments, but may be ultimately limited by the availability of fossil fuels. The IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios gives a wide range of future CO2 scenarios, ranging from 541 to 970 ppm by the year 2100. Fossil fuel reserves are sufficient to reach this level and continue emissions past 2100, if coal, tar sands or methane clathrates are extensively used.

Feedbacks

The effects of forcing agents on the climate are complicated by various feedback processes.

One of the most pronounced feedback effects relates to the evaporation of water. Warming by the addition of long-lived greenhouse gases such as CO2 will cause more water to evaporate into the atmosphere. Since water vapor itself acts as a greenhouse gas, the atmosphere warms further; this warming causes more water vapor to evaporate (a positive feedback), and so on until other processes stop the feedback loop. The result is a much larger greenhouse effect than that due to CO2 alone. Although this feedback process causes an increase in the absolute moisture content of the air, the relative humidity stays nearly constant or even decreases slightly because the air is warmer. This feedback effect can only be reversed slowly as CO2 has a long average atmospheric lifetime.

Feedback effects due to clouds are an area of ongoing research. Seen from below, clouds emit infrared radiation back to the surface, and so exert a warming effect; seen from above, clouds reflect sunlight and emit infrared radiation to space, and so exert a cooling effect. Whether the net effect is warming or cooling depends on details such as the type and altitude of the cloud. These details are difficult to represent in climate models, in part because clouds are much smaller than the spacing between points on the computational grids of climate models. Nevertheless, cloud feedback is second only to water vapor feedback and is positive in all the models that were used in the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report.

A subtler feedback process relates to changes in the lapse rate as the atmosphere warms. The atmosphere’s temperature decreases with height in the troposphere. Since emission of infrared radiation varies with the fourth power of temperature, longwave radiation emitted from the upper atmosphere is less than that emitted from the lower atmosphere. Most of the radiation emitted from the upper atmosphere escapes to space, while most of the radiation emitted from the lower atmosphere is re-absorbed by the surface or the atmosphere. Thus, the strength of the greenhouse effect depends on the atmosphere’s rate of temperature decrease with height: if the rate of temperature decrease is greater the greenhouse effect will be stronger, and if the rate of temperature decrease is smaller then the greenhouse effect will be weaker. Both theory and climate models indicate that warming will reduce the decrease of temperature with height, producing a negative lapse rate feedback that weakens the greenhouse effect. Measurements of the rate of temperature change with height are very sensitive to small errors in observations, making it difficult to establish whether the models agree with observations.

Another important feedback process is ice-albedo feedback. When global temperatures increase, ice near the poles melts at an increasing rate. As the ice melts, land or open water takes its place. Both land and open water are on average less reflective than ice, and thus absorb more solar radiation. This causes more warming, which in turn causes more melting, and this cycle continues.

Positive feedback due to release of CO2 and CH4 from thawing permafrost, such as the frozen peat bogs in Siberia, is an additional mechanism that could contribute to warming. Similarly a massive release of CH4 from methane clathrates in the ocean could cause rapid warming, according to the clathrate gun hypothesis.

The ocean’s ability to sequester carbon is expected to decline as it warms. This is because the resulting low nutrient levels of the mesopelagic zone (about 200 to 1000 m depth) limits the growth of diatoms in favor of smaller phytoplankton that are poorer biological pumps of carbon.

Solar variation

A few papers suggest that the Sun’s contribution may have been underestimated. Two researchers at Duke University, Bruce West and Nicola Scafetta, have estimated that the Sun may have contributed about 45–50% of the increase in the average global surface temperature over the period 1900–2000, and about 25–35% between 1980 and 2000.[40] A paper by Peter Stott and other researchers suggests that climate models overestimate the relative effect of greenhouse gases compared to solar forcing; they also suggest that the cooling effects of volcanic dust and sulfate aerosols have been underestimated.They nevertheless conclude that even with an enhanced climate sensitivity to solar forcing, most of the warming since the mid-20th century is likely attributable to the increases in greenhouse gases.

A different hypothesis is that variations in solar output, possibly amplified by cloud seeding via galactic cosmic rays, may have contributed to recent warming. It suggests magnetic activity of the sun is a crucial factor which deflects cosmic rays that may influence the generation of cloud condensation nuclei and thereby affect the climate.

One predicted effect of an increase in solar activity would be a warming of most of the stratosphere, whereas greenhouse gas theory predicts cooling there. The observed trend since at least 1960 has been a cooling of the lower stratosphere. Reduction of stratospheric ozone also has a cooling influence, but substantial ozone depletion did not occur until the late 1970s. Solar variation combined with changes in volcanic activity probably did have a warming effect from pre-industrial times to 1950, but a cooling effect since. In 2006, Peter Foukal and other researchers from the United States, Germany, and Switzerland found no net increase of solar brightness over the last thousand years. Solar cycles led to a small increase of 0.07% in brightness over the last thirty years. This effect is too small to contribute significantly to global warming. One paper by Mike Lockwood and Claus Fröhlich found no relation between global warming and solar radiation since 1985, whether through variations in solar output or variations in cosmic rays. Henrik Svensmark and Eigil Friis-Christensen, the main proponents of cloud seeding by galactic cosmic rays, disputed this criticism of their hypothesis. A 2007 paper found that in the last 20 years there has been no significant link between changes in cosmic rays coming to Earth and cloudiness and temperature.

Climate models

Scientists have studied global warming with computer models of the climate. These models are based on physical principles of fluid dynamics, radiative transfer, and other processes, with simplifications being necessary because of limitations in computer power and the complexity of the climate system. All modern climate models include an atmospheric model that is coupled to an ocean model and models for ice cover on land and sea. Some models also include treatments of chemical and biological processes.These models predict that the effect of adding greenhouse gases is to produce a warmer climate. However, even when the same assumptions of future greenhouse gas levels are used, there still remains a considerable range of climate sensitivity.

Including uncertainties in future greenhouse gas concentrations and climate modeling, the IPCC anticipates a warming of 1.1 °C to 6.4 °C (2.0 °F to 11.5 °F) by the end of the 21st century, relative to 1980–1999. Models have also been used to help investigate the causes of recent climate change by comparing the observed changes to those that the models project from various natural and human-derived causes.

Current climate models produce a good match to observations of global temperature changes over the last century, but do not simulate all aspects of climate. These models do not unambiguously attribute the warming that occurred from approximately 1910 to 1945 to either natural variation or human effects; however, they suggest that the warming since 1975 is dominated by man-made greenhouse gas emissions.

Global climate model projections of future climate are forced by imposed greenhouse gas emission scenarios, most often from the IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES). Less commonly, models may also include a simulation of the carbon cycle; this generally shows a positive feedback, though this response is uncertain (under the A2 SRES scenario, responses vary between an extra 20 and 200 ppm of CO2). Some observational studies also show a positive feedback.

The representation of clouds is one of the main sources of uncertainty in present-generation models, though progress is being made on this problem.

A recent study by David Douglass, John Christy, Benjamin Pearson and Fred Singer comparing the composite output of 22 leading global climate models with actual climate data finds that the models do not accurately predict observed changes to the temperature profile in the tropical troposphere. The authors note that their conclusions contrast strongly with those of recent publications based on essentially the same data.

Attributed and expected effects

Although it is difficult to connect specific weather events to global warming, an increase in global temperatures may in turn cause broader changes, including glacial retreat, Arctic shrinkage, and worldwide sea level rise. Changes in the amount and pattern of precipitation may result in flooding and drought. There may also be changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. Other effects may include changes in agricultural yields, addition of new trade routes,[76] reduced summer streamflows, species extinctions, and increases in the range of disease vectors.

Some effects on both the natural environment and human life are, at least in part, already being attributed to global warming. A 2001 report by the IPCC suggests that glacier retreat, ice shelf disruption such as that of the Larsen Ice Shelf, sea level rise, changes in rainfall patterns, and increased intensity and frequency of extreme weather events, are being attributed in part to global warming. While changes are expected for overall patterns, intensity, and frequencies, it is difficult to attribute specific events to global warming. Other expected effects include water scarcity in some regions and increased precipitation in others, changes in mountain snowpack, and adverse health effects from warmer temperatures.

Increasing deaths, displacements, and economic losses projected due to extreme weather attributed to global warming may be exacerbated by growing population densities in affected areas, although temperate regions are projected to experience some benefits, such as fewer deaths due to cold exposure. A summary of probable effects and recent understanding can be found in the report made for the IPCC Third Assessment Report by Working Group II. The newer IPCC Fourth Assessment Report summary reports that there is observational evidence for an increase in intense tropical cyclone activity in the North Atlantic Ocean since about 1970, in correlation with the increase in sea surface temperature, but that the detection of long-term trends is complicated by the quality of records prior to routine satellite observations. The summary also states that there is no clear trend in the annual worldwide number of tropical cyclones.

Additional anticipated effects include sea level rise of 110 to 770 millimeters (0.36 to 2.5 ft) between 1990 and 2100, repercussions to agriculture, possible slowing of the thermohaline circulation, reductions in the ozone layer, increased intensity (but less frequent) of hurricanes and extreme weather events, lowering of ocean pH, and the spread of diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. One study predicts 18% to 35% of a sample of 1,103 animal and plant species would be extinct by 2050, based on future climate projections. However, few mechanistic studies have documented extinctions due to recent climate change and one study suggests that projected rates of extinction are uncertain.

Temperature changes

Global temperatures on both land and sea have increased by 0.75 °C (1.35 °F) relative to the period 1860–1900, according to the instrumental temperature record. This measured temperature increase is not significantly affected by the urban heat island effect. Since 1979, land temperatures have increased about twice as fast as ocean temperatures (0.25 °C per decade against 0.13 °C per decade). Temperatures in the lower troposphere have increased between 0.12 and 0.22 °C (0.22 and 0.4 °F) per decade since 1979, according to satellite temperature measurements. Temperature is believed to have been relatively stable over the one or two thousand years before 1850, with possibly regional fluctuations such as the Medieval Warm Period or the Little Ice Age.

Sea temperatures increase more slowly than those on land both because of the larger effective heat capacity of the oceans and because the ocean can lose heat by evaporation more readily than the land. The Northern Hemisphere has more land than the Southern Hemisphere, so it warms faster. The Northern Hemisphere also has extensive areas of seasonal snow and sea-ice cover subject to the ice-albedo feedback. More greenhouse gases are emitted in the Northern than Southern Hemisphere, but this does not contribute to the difference in warming because the major greenhouse gases persist long enough to mix between hemispheres.

Based on estimates by NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies, 2005 was the warmest year since reliable, widespread instrumental measurements became available in the late 1800s, exceeding the previous record set in 1998 by a few hundredths of a degree. Estimates prepared by the World Meteorological Organization and the Climatic Research Unit concluded that 2005 was the second warmest year, behind 1998. Temperatures in 1998 were unusually warm because the strongest El Niño in the past century occurred during that year.

Anthropogenic emissions of other pollutants—notably sulfate aerosols—can exert a cooling effect by increasing the reflection of incoming sunlight. This partially accounts for the cooling seen in the temperature record in the middle of the twentieth century, though the cooling may also be due in part to natural variability. James Hansen and colleagues have proposed that the effects of the products of fossil fuel combustion—CO2 and aerosols—have largely offset one another, so that warming in recent decades has been driven mainly by non-CO2 greenhouse gases.

Paleoclimatologist William Ruddiman has argued that human influence on the global climate began around 8,000 years ago with the start of forest clearing to provide land for agriculture and 5,000 years ago with the start of Asian rice irrigation. Ruddiman’s interpretation of the historical record, with respect to the methane data, has been disputed.

Pre-human climate variations

Earth has experienced warming and cooling many times in the past. The recent Antarctic EPICA ice core spans 800,000 years, including eight glacial cycles timed by orbital variations with interglacial warm periods comparable to present temperatures.

A rapid buildup of greenhouse gases amplified warming in the early Jurassic period (about 180 million years ago), with average temperatures rising by 5 °C (9 °F). Research by the Open University indicates that the warming caused the rate of rock weathering to increase by 400%. As such weathering locks away carbon in calcite and dolomite, CO2 levels dropped back to normal over roughly the next 150,000 years.

Sudden releases of methane from clathrate compounds (the clathrate gun hypothesis) have been hypothesized as both a cause for and an effect of other warming events in the distant past, including the Permian–Triassic extinction event (about 251 million years ago) and the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (about 55 million years ago). (www.wikipedia.com)